Lucretius - Book Four

Munro: I TRAVERSE the pathless haunts of the Pierides never yet trodden by sole of man. I love to approach the untasted springs and to quaff; I love to cull fresh flowers and gather for my head a distinguished crown from spots whence the muses have yet veiled the brows of none; first because I teach of great things and essay to release the mind from the fast bonds of religious scruples, and next because on a dark subject I pen such lucid verses, overlaying all with the muses’ charm. For that too would seem to be not without good grounds: even as physicians when they propose to give nauseous wormwood to children, first smear the rim round the bowl with the sweet yellow juice of honey, that the unthinking age of children may be fooled as far as the lips, and meanwhile drink up the bitter draught of wormwood and though beguiled yet not be betrayed, but rather by such means recover health and strength: so now, since this doctrine seems generally somewhat bitter to those by whom it has not been handled, and the multitude shrinks back from it in dismay, have resolved to set forth to you our doctrine in sweet-toned Pierian verse and overlay it, as it were, with the pleasant honey of the muses, if haply by such means I might engage your mind on my verses, till such time as you apprehend all the nature of things and thoroughly feel what use it has.

Dunster: Inspired, I wander over the Muses seats, of difficult access, and yet untrod; I love to approach the purest springs, and thence to draw large draughts; I love to crop fresh flowers and make a noble garland for my head from thence, where yet the Muses never bound another's temples with a crown like mine. And first I write of lofty things, and strive to free the mind from the severest bonds of what men call religion; then my verse I frame so clear, although my theme by dark; seasoning my lines with the poetic sweets of fancy, and reason justifies the method; for as physicians when they would prevail on children to take down a bitter draught of wormwood, first tinge the edges of the cup with sweet and yellow honey, that so the children's unsuspecting age, at least their lips, may be deceived, and take the bitter juice; thus harmlessly betrayed, but not abused, by tasting thus they rather have their health restored: So I, because this system seems severe and harsh to such who have not yet discerned its truth, and the common herd are utterly averse to this philosophy, I thought it fit to show these rigid principles in verse, smooth and alluring, and tinge them, as it were, with sweet poetic honey, thus to charm your mind with my soft numbers till you view the nature of all things clearly, and perceive the usefulness and order they display.

Latin: Avia Pieridum peragro loca nullius ante trita solo. iuvat integros accedere fontis atque haurire, iuvatque novos decerpere flores insignemque meo capiti petere inde coronam, unde prius nulli velarint tempora musae; primum quod magnis doceo de rebus et artis religionum animum nodis exsolvere pergo, deinde quod obscura de re tam lucida pango carmina musaeo contingens cuncta lepore. id quoque enim non ab nulla ratione videtur; nam vel uti pueris absinthia taetra medentes cum dare conantur, prius oras pocula circum contingunt mellis dulci flavoque liquore, ut puerorum aetas inprovida ludificetur labrorum tenus, interea perpotet amarum absinthi laticem deceptaque non capiatur, sed potius tali facto recreata valescat, sic ego nunc, quoniam haec ratio plerumque videtur tristior esse quibus non est tractata, retroque volgus abhorret ab hac, volui tibi suaviloquenti carmine Pierio rationem exponere nostram et quasi musaeo dulci contingere melle; si tibi forte animum tali ratione tenere versibus in nostris possem, dum percipis omnem naturam rerum ac persentis utilitatem.

Munro: And now that I have taught what the nature of the mind is and out of what things it is formed into one quickened being with the body, and how it is dissevered and returns into its first-beginnings, I will attempt to lay before you a truth which most nearly concerns these questions, the existence of things which we call idols of things: these, like films peeled from the surface of things, fly to and fro through the air, and do likewise frighten our minds when they present themselves to us awake as well as in sleep, what time we behold strange shapes and idols of the light-bereaved, which have often startled us in appalling wise as we lay relaxed in sleep: this I will essay, that we may not haply believe that souls break loose from Acheron or that shades fly about among the living or that something of us is left behind after death, when the body and the nature of the mind destroyed together have taken their departure into their several first-beginnings. I say then that pictures of things and thin shapes are emitted from things off their surface, to which an image serves as a kind of film, or name it if you like a rind, because such image bears an appearance and form like to the thing whatever it is from whose body it is shed and wanders forth. This you may learn, however dull of apprehension, from what follows.

Dunster: Now since I taught what are the first principles of all things, and how they differ in their figures, and wander of their own accord, urged on by an eternal motion, and how of them all beings are first formed, and I have shown the nature of the mind, of what seeds composed, and how it exerts itself united with the body, and separated from it, how it returns to its first principles again: I shall now begin to explain what is of the nearest concern to these inquiries, and prove that there are what we call the images of things, which, like membranes, or films, flowing from the surface of bodies, fly every way abroad through the air. These, while we are awake, often rush upon our minds and terrify us, and likewise sleeping, when we think we see strange phantoms and specters of the dead, which shake us horribly when fast asleep. For sure we are not to imagine that the souls are broke loose out of Hell, or that the ghosts hover and play about the living, or that any part of us remains after death; since the soul and body, once dissolved, return severally to their first seeds from whence they were produced. I say then that images or tenuous figures are always flowing, or sent out from the surface of bodies, which may be called the membranes of the bark of things; and these several images bear the same shape and form as the particular body from whence they flow. This requires no extraordinary apprehension to conceive.

Latin: Sed quoniam docui cunctarum exordia rerum qualia sint et quam variis distantia formis sponte sua volitent aeterno percita motu quoque modo possit res ex his quaeque creari, [nunc agere incipiam tibi quod vehementer ad has res attinet esse ea quae rerum simulacra vocamus, quae quasi membranae vel cortex nominitandast,] atque animi quoniam docui natura quid esset et quibus e rebus cum corpore compta vigeret quove modo distracta rediret in ordia prima, nunc agere incipiam tibi, quod vehementer ad has res attinet esse ea quae rerum simulacra vocamus, quod speciem ac formam similem gerit eius imago, cuius cumque cluet de corpore fusa vagari; quae quasi membranae summo de corpore rerum dereptae volitant ultroque citroque per auras, atque eadem nobis vigilantibus obvia mentes terrificant atque in somnis, cum saepe figuras contuimur miras simulacraque luce carentum, quae nos horrifice languentis saepe sopore excierunt ne forte animas Acherunte reamur effugere aut umbras inter vivos volitare neve aliquid nostri post mortem posse relinqui, cum corpus simul atque animi natura perempta in sua discessum dederint primordia quaeque. dico igitur rerum effigias tenuisque figuras mittier ab rebus summo de cortice eorum; id licet hinc quamvis hebeti cognoscere corde.

Munro: First of all, since among things open to sight many emit bodies, some in a state of loose diffusion, like smoke which logs of oak, heat which fires emit; some of a closer and denser texture, like the gossamer coats which at times cicades doff in summer, and the films which calves at their birth cast from the surface of their body, as well as the vesture which the slippery serpent puts off among the thorns; for often we see the brambles enriched with their flying spoils: since these cases occur, a thin image likewise must be emitted from things off their surface. For why those films should drop off and withdraw from things rather than films which are really thin, not one tittle of proof can be given; especially since there are on the surface of things many minute bodies which maybe discharged in the same order they had before and preserve the outline of the shape, and be discharged with far more velocity, inasmuch as they are less liable to get hampered being few in number and stationed in the front rank. For without doubt we see many things discharge and freely give not only from the core and center, as we said before, but from their surfaces, besides other things, color itself. And this is commonly done by yellow and red and dark blue awnings, when they are spread over large theaters and flutter and wave as they stretch across their poles and crossbeams; for then they dye the seated assemblage below and all the show of the stage and the richly attired company of the fathers, and compel them to dance about in their color. And the more these objects are shut in all round by the walls of the theater the more do all of them within laugh on all hands, overlaid with graceful hues, the light of day being narrowed. Therefore since sheets of canvass emit color from their surface, all things will naturally emit thin pictures too, since in each case alike they discharge from the surface. There are therefore as now shown sure outlines of shapes, which fly all about possessed of an exquisitely small thickness and cannot when separate be seen one at a time.

Dunster: For to give a plan instance, many things emit bodies from themselves, some more rare and diffused, as wood discharges smoke and fire a vapour; others more dense and compact, as when grasshoppers in summer cast their old coats, and calves new-born drop the pellicules in which they are enclosed; or as the winding snake leaves his skin among the thorns, for the briers we often see adorned with their light spoils. This being so, it follows that a very subtle image may fly off from the utmost surface of bodies; for there can be no reason given why these, and not others more thin than these, may not fall off and be discharged; especially since in every surface there are many minute corpuscles that may be cast off in the very same order they are ranged in the body, and so preserve their old form and figure; and they are the readier to fly off because they are small, and no so liable to be stopped, and are placed likewise upon the utmost surface. For it is certain that many particles are not sent out and get loose only from the middle and inward parts, as we said before, but color itself is discharged from the surface of bodies. And so curtains, yellow, of a deep red, or blue (as they hang in lofty theatres, waving expanded on the beams, and flowing on the pillars with the wind) do this; for they stain the stage, and scenes, and audience, senators, matrons, and the images of the gods; and cause them to wave in their own gaudy dye; and the more the walls of the theatre are darkened, and the daylight shut out, every thing which is spread over and shines out with a brighter luster. Since therefore these curtains discharge their colors from the surface, all things, by the same rule, may emit subtle images, for those are thrown off from the surface as well as these. There are therefore certain images of things, of a fine and subtle contexture, that are always flying about, and are impossibly severally to be discovered by the eye.

Latin: Principio quoniam mittunt in rebus apertis corpora res multae, partim diffusa solute, robora ceu fumum mittunt ignesque vaporem, et partim contexta magis condensaque, ut olim cum teretis ponunt tunicas aestate cicadae, et vituli cum membranas de corpore summo nascentes mittunt, et item cum lubrica serpens exuit in spinis vestem; nam saepe videmus illorum spoliis vepres volitantibus auctas. quae quoniam fiunt, tenuis quoque debet imago ab rebus mitti summo de corpore rerum. nam cur illa cadant magis ab rebusque recedant quam quae tenvia sunt, hiscendist nulla potestas; praesertim cum sint in summis corpora rebus multa minuta, iaci quae possint ordine eodem quo fuerint et formai servare figuram, et multo citius, quanto minus indupediri pauca queunt et [quae] sunt prima fronte locata. nam certe iacere ac largiri multa videmus, non solum ex alto penitusque, ut diximus ante, verum de summis ipsum quoque saepe colorem. et volgo faciunt id lutea russaque vela et ferrugina, cum magnis intenta theatris per malos volgata trabesque trementia flutant; namque ibi consessum caveai supter et omnem scaenai speciem patrum matrumque deorsum inficiunt coguntque suo fluitare colore. et quanto circum mage sunt inclusa theatri moenia, tam magis haec intus perfusa lepore omnia conrident correpta luce diei. ergo lintea de summo cum corpore fucum mittunt, effigias quoque debent mittere tenvis res quaeque, ex summo quoniam iaculantur utraque. sunt igitur iam formarum vestigia certa, quae volgo volitant subtili praedita filo nec singillatim possunt secreta videri.

Munro: Again, all smell, smoke, heat, and other such-like things stream off things in a state of diffusion, because while they are coming from the depths of the body having arisen within it, they are torn in their winding passage, and there are no straight orifices to the paths, for them to make their way out by in a mass. But on the other hand, when a thin film of surface color is discharged, there is nothing to rend it, since it is ready to hand, stationed in front rank.

Dunster: Besides, all smell, smoke, vapour, and other such things fly off from bodies in a diffused and scattered manner, because as they pass to the outside of bodies from within they are broken and divided by the crooked pores they must make their way through; the road they are to take is full of windings, as they attempt to rise and fly out; but, on the contrary, when the membrane of color is thrown off, there is nothing to disorder it, because it lies disentangled upon the very surface.

Latin: Praeterea omnis odor fumus vapor atque aliae res consimiles ideo diffusae rebus abundant, ex alto quia dum veniunt extrinsecus ortae scinduntur per iter flexum, nec recta viarum ostia sunt, qua contendant exire coortae. at contra tenuis summi membrana coloris cum iacitur, nihil est quod eam discerpere possit, in promptu quoniam est in prima fronte locata.

Munro: Lastly, in the case of all idols which show themselves to us in mirrors, in water or any other shining object, since their outsides are possessed of an appearance like to the things they represent, they must be formed of emitted images of things. There are therefore thin shapes and pictures like to the things, which, though no one can see them one at a time, yet when thrown off by constant and repeated reflection give back a visible image from the surface of mirrors; and in no other way it would seem can they be kept so entire that shapes are given back so exceedingly like each object.

Dunster: And then since the forms that appear to us in looking-glass, in water, and all polished bodies are exactly like the things whose images they are, they must necessarily be composed of the images that flow from the substance of the things themselves, for why those particles should fall away and be discharged from bodies which are discovered by the eye rather than these that are more thin and subtle no reason can properly be assigned. There are therefore tenuous and fine shapes of the same figure with the things themselves, which, though they cannot singly be distinguished by the sight, yet being reflected, and swiftly and constantly repelled from the smooth plane of the glass, become visible, nor can any other reason be so properly offered why forms so like the things are returned to us.

Latin: Postremo speculis in aqua splendoreque in omni quae cumque apparent nobis simulacra, necessest, quandoquidem simili specie sunt praedita rerum, exin imaginibus missis consistere eorum. [nam cur illa cadant magis ab rebusque recedant quam quae tenuia sunt, hiscendist nulla potestas.] sunt igitur tenues formarum illis similesque effigiae, singillatim quas cernere nemo cum possit, tamen adsiduo crebroque repulsu reiectae reddunt speculorum ex aequore visum, nec ratione alia servari posse videntur, tanto opere ut similes reddantur cuique figurae.

Munro: Now mark, and learn how thin in the nature of an image is. And first of all, since first-beginnings are so far below the ken of our senses and much smaller than the things which our eyes first begin to be unable to see, to strengthen yet more the proof of this also, learn in a few words how minutely fine are the beginnings of all things.

Dunster: And now conceive, if you can, of what a tenuous and subtle nature an image consists, and for this reason, in the first place, because the seeds of things are so much beyond the reach and discovery of our senses, and are infinitely less than those bodies that escape the observation of the most curious eye; as a proof how subtle the first principles of things are, attend to these short observations.

Latin: Nunc age, quam tenui natura constet imago percipe. et in primis, quoniam primordia tantum sunt infra nostros sensus tantoque minora quam quae primum oculi coeptant non posse tueri, nunc tamen id quoque uti confirmem, exordia rerum cunctarum quam sint subtilia percipe paucis.

Munro: First, living things are in some cases so very little, that their third part cannot be seen at all. Of what size are we to suppose any gut of such creatures to be? Or the ball of the heart or the eyes? The limbs? Or any part of the frame? How small they must be! And then further, the several first-beginnings of which their soul and the nature of their mind must be formed? Do you not perceive how fine, how minute they are?

Dunster: And first there are animals so exceeding small, that one third part of them cannot possibly by any means be discovered. What are you to conceive of the bowels of these creatures? Of their little hearts and eyes? What of their members? What are you to think of their limbs? How small are they? What besides of the seeds which compose the soul and mid, don’t you imagine how subtle and minute they are?

Latin: Primum animalia sunt iam partim tantula, corum tertia pars nulla possit ratione videri. horum intestinum quodvis quale esse putandumst! quid cordis globus aut oculi? quid membra? quid artus? quantula sunt! quid praeterea primordia quaeque, unde anima atque animi constet natura necessumst, nonne vides quam sint subtilia quamque minuta?

Munro: Again in the case of all things which exhale from their body a pungent smell, all-heal, nauseous wormwood, strong scented southernwood and the bitter centauries, any one of which, if you happen to \[feel it\] lightly between two \[fingers, will impregnate them with a strong smell\] but rather you are to know that idols of things wander about many in number in many ways, of no force, powerless to excite sense.

Dunster: Besides, herbs that exhale a sharp smell from their bodies, such as all-heal, bitter wormwood, strong southernwood, and four centaury, if you shake any of these ever so lightly you may be sure many particles fly off, and scatter every way, but without force, and too weak to affect the sense; yet how small and subtle are the images that are formed from these, no one can conceive or express.

Latin: Praeterea quaecumque suo de corpore odorem expirant acrem, panaces absinthia taetra habrotonique graves et tristia centaurea, quorum unum quidvis leviter si forte duobus * * * quin potius noscas rerum simulacra vagari multa modis multis, nulla vi cassaque sensu?

Munro: But lest haply you suppose that only those idols of things which go off from things and no others wander about, there are likewise those which are spontaneously begotten and are formed by themselves in this lower heaven which is called air: these fashioned in many ways are borne along on high and being in a fluid state cease not to alter their appearance and change it into the outline of shapes of every possible kind; as we see clouds sometimes gather into masses on high and blot the calm clear face of heaven, fanning the air with their motion. Thus often the faces of giants are seen to fly along and draw after them a far-spreading shadow; sometimes great mountains and rocks torn from the mountains are seen to go in advance and pass across the sun; and then some huge beast is observed to draw with it and bring on the other storm clouds.

Dunster: But lest you should think that the images that fly off the surface of bodies are the only things that wander abroad, there are other shapes that are fashioned of their own accord, and are produced in the lower region we call the air; these are framed in various manners, are carried upward, and being very subtle and less compact in their contexture, are ever changing their figure, and assume all variety of forms. Thus we see the clouds sometimes thicken in the sky, darkening the serene face of the heavens, and wounding the air by violence of their motion; now the shape of giants seem to fly abroad, and project their shadows all round; and then huge hills, and rocks torn from the mountaintop, are born before the sun, and hide his light. Others again advance and represent the shape of monsters wandering through the sky.

Latin: Sed ne forte putes ea demum sola vagari, quae cumque ab rebus rerum simulacra recedunt, sunt etiam quae sponte sua gignuntur et ipsa constituuntur in hoc caelo, qui dicitur aer, quae multis formata modis sublime feruntur, ut nubes facile inter dum concrescere in alto cernimus et mundi speciem violare serenam aëra mulcentes motu; nam saepe Gigantum ora volare videntur et umbram ducere late, inter dum magni montes avolsaque saxa montibus ante ire et solem succedere praeter, inde alios trahere atque inducere belua nimbos. nec speciem mutare suam liquentia cessant et cuiusque modi formarum vertere in oras.

Munro: Now I will proceed to show with what ease and celerity they are begotten and how incessantly they flow and fall away from things. The outermost surface is ever streaming off from things and admits of being discharged: when this reaches some things, it passes through them, glass especially. But when it reaches rough stones or the matter of wood, it is then so torn that it cannot give back any idol. But when objects at once shining and dense have been put in its way, a mirror especially, none of these results has place: it can neither pass through it, like glass, nor can it be torn either; such perfect safety the polished surface minds to ensure. In consequence of this idols stream back to us from such objects; and however suddenly at any moment you place anything opposite a mirror, an image shows itself: hence you may be sure that thin textures and thin shapes of things incessantly stream from their surface. Therefore many idols are begotten in a short time, so that the birth of such things is with good reason named a rapid one. And as the sun must send forth many rays of light in a short time in order that all things may be continually filled with it, so also for alike reason there must be carried away from things in a moment of time idols of things many in number in many ways in all directions round; since to whatever part of them we present a mirror before their surfaces, other things correspond to these in the mirror of a like shape and like color.

Dunster: Now learn in how easy and swift a manner these images are produced; how they continually fly and fall off from the surface of bodies; for there is always a store of forms upon the outside of things ready to be thrown off. These, when they light upon some things, pass through them, as a garment for instance; but when they strike upon sharp rocks, or upon wood, they are immediately broken and divided, so that no image can be reflected; but when they are opposed by dense and polished bodies, such as looking-glass, then nothing of this happens; for they can neither pass through this as through a garment, nor are they divided before the glass preserves their figure perfect and entire. Hence it is that these forms are presented to our sight, and place a thing ever so suddenly, and in a moment of time, before the glass, and the image instantly appears. So that you find there are subtle textures of things, and subtle images continually flowing from the surface of bodies; and therefore many of these forms are produced in a short space of time, and may be justly said to receive their being from a very swift motion. And as the sun is obliged to emit many of its rays in an instant, that the whole air might be full of light, so many images of things must needs be carried off in the smallest point of time, and scattered every way abroad; for place your glass in what manner you please, the things appear in the same color and figure they really are.

Latin: Nunc ea quam facili et celeri ratione genantur perpetuoque fluant ab rebus lapsaque cedant * * * semper enim summum quicquid de rebus abundat, quod iaculentur. et hoc alias cum pervenit in res, transit, ut in primis vestem; sed ubi aspera saxa aut in materiam ligni pervenit, ibi iam scinditur, ut nullum simulacrum reddere possit. at cum splendida quae constant opposta fuerunt densaque, ut in primis speculum est, nihil accidit horum; nam neque, uti vestem, possunt transire, neque autem scindi; quam meminit levor praestare salutem. qua propter fit ut hinc nobis simulacra redundent. et quamvis subito quovis in tempore quamque rem contra speculum ponas, apparet imago; perpetuo fluere ut noscas e corpore summo texturas rerum tenuis tenuisque figuras. ergo multa brevi spatio simulacra genuntur, ut merito celer his rebus dicatur origo. et quasi multa brevi spatio summittere debet lumina sol, ut perpetuo sint omnia plena, sic ab rebus item simili ratione necessest temporis in puncto rerum simulacra ferantur multa modis multis in cunctas undique partis; quandoquidem speculum quo cumque obvertimus oris, res ibi respondent simili forma atque colore.

Munro: Moreover, though the state of heaven has just before been of unsullied purity, with exceeding suddenness it becomes so hideously overcast, that you might imagine all its darkness had abandoned Acheron throughout and filled up the great vaults of heaven: in such numbers do faces of black horror rise up from amid the frightful night of storm clouds and hang over us on high. Now there is no one who can tell how small a fraction of these an image is, or express that sum in language.

Dunster: So often, when the face of the sky is most serene and bright, it becomes on all sides black and horrid of a sudden, that you would think the while body of darkness had left the regions below, and filled the wide arch of heaven, so dreadful does the night appear from driving clouds, and scatters gloomy terror from above, but how small in comparison of these clouds are the images of things no one can conceive or express.

Latin: Praeterea modo cum fuerit liquidissima caeli tempestas, perquam subito fit turbida foede, undique uti tenebras omnis Acherunta rearis liquisse et magnas caeli complesse cavernas. usque adeo taetra nimborum nocte coorta inpendent atrae Formidinis ora superne; quorum quantula pars sit imago dicere nemost qui possit neque eam rationem reddere dictis.

Munro: Now mark: how swift the motion is with which idols are borne along, and what velocity is assigned to them as they glide through the air, so that but a short hour is spent on a journey through long space, whatever the spot towards which they go with a movement of varied tendency, all this I will tell in sweetly worded rather than in many verses; as the short song of the swan is better than the loud noise of cranes scattered abroad amid the ethereal clouds of the south.

Dunster: And now, with how swift courage these images are carried on, how suddenly they make their passage through the air, how they outstrip dull time, wherever by various motion they intend their way, I choose in sweetest numbers than in tedious verse to show: As the swan’s short song is more melodious than the harsh noise of cranes, scattered by winds through all the air.

Latin: Nunc age, quam celeri motu simulacra ferantur, et quae mobilitas ollis tranantibus auras reddita sit, longo spatio ut brevis hora teratur, in quem quaeque locum diverso numine tendunt, suavidicis potius quam multis versibus edam; parvus ut est cycni melior canor, ille gruum quam clamor in aetheriis dispersus nubibus austri.

Munro: First of all we may very often observe that things which are light and made of minute bodies are swift. Of this kind are the light of the sun and its heat, because they are made of minute first things which are knocked forward so to speak and do not hesitate to pass through the space of air between, ever driven on by a blow following behind; for light on the instant is supplied by fresh light and brightness goaded to show its brightness in what you might call an ever on-moving team. Therefore in like manner idols must be able to scour in a moment of time through space unspeakable, first because they are exceeding small and there is a cause at their back to carry and impel them far forward; where moreover they move on with such winged lightness; next because when emitted they are possessed of so rare a texture, that they can readily pass through any things and stream as it were through the space of air between.

Dunster: First then, we observe that light things that are formed of small particles, are very swift in their motion; of this sort are the rays and heat of the sun, because they are composed of very minute seeds which are easily thrust forward, as it were, through the interjacent air, the following urging on the part that went before; for one beam of light is instantly supplied by another, and every ray is pressed on by another behind. By the same rule, the images may pass through an unaccountable space in a moment of time: first, because there is always a force behind to drive and urge them forward, and then their texture, as they fly off, is so thin and subtle, that they can pierce through any bodies, and, as it were, flow through the air that lies between.

Latin: Principio persaepe levis res atque minutis corporibus factas celeris licet esse videre. in quo iam genere est solis lux et vapor eius, propterea quia sunt e primis facta minutis, quae quasi cuduntur perque aëris intervallum non dubitant transire sequenti concita plaga; suppeditatur enim confestim lumine lumen et quasi protelo stimulatur fulgere fulgur. qua propter simulacra pari ratione necessest inmemorabile per spatium transcurrere posse temporis in puncto, primum quod parvola causa est procul a tergo quae provehat atque propellat, quod super est, ubi tam volucri levitate ferantur, deinde quod usque adeo textura praedita rara mittuntur, facile ut quasvis penetrare queant res et quasi permanare per aëris intervallum.

Munro: Again, if those minute bodies of things which are given out from the inmost depths of these things, as the light and heat of the sun, are seen in a moment of time to glide and spread themselves through the length and breadth of heaven, fly over sea and lands and flood the heaven, what then of those which stand ready posted in front rank, when they are discharged and nothing obstructs their egress? How much faster, you see, and farther must they travel, scouring through many times the same amount of space in the same time that the sunlight takes to spread over heaven !

Dunster: Besides, if those corpuscles that lie in the inward parts of bodies are discharged from above down upon the earth, such as the light and heat of the sun; if these, we observe, descend in a point of time, and spread themselves through all the expansion of the air, and fly over the sea, the Earth, and the upper regions of the heavens; if these are diffused with such wonderful celerity, what shall we say? Those particles that are always ready upon the utmost surface of things, when they are thrown off, and have nothing to obstruct their motions, don’t you see how those may fly swifter, and go further, and pass through a much greater space in the same time than the beams of the sun take up to make their way through?

Latin: Praeterea si quae penitus corpuscula rerum ex altoque foras mittuntur, solis uti lux ac vapor, haec puncto cernuntur lapsa diei per totum caeli spatium diffundere sese perque volare mare ac terras caelumque rigare. quid quae sunt igitur iam prima fronte parata, cum iaciuntur et emissum res nulla moratur? quone vides citius debere et longius ire multiplexque loci spatium transcurrere eodem tempore quo solis pervolgant lumina caelum?

Munro: This too appears to be an eminently true proof of the velocity with which idols of things are borne along: as soon as ever the brightness of water is set down in the open air, if the heaven is starry, in a moment the clear radiant constellations of ether imaged in the water correspond to those in the heaven. Now do you see in what a moment of time an image drops down from the borders of heaven to the borders of earth? Therefore, again and again I repeat you must admit that bodies capable of striking the eyes and of provoking vision \[constantly travel\] with a marvelous \[velocity\]. Smells too incessantly stream from certain things; as does cold from rivers, heat from the sun, spray from the waves of the sea, that enter into walls near the shore. Various sounds also cease not to fly through the air. Then too a moist salt flavor often comes into the mouth, when we are moving about beside the sea; and when we look on at the mixing of a decoction of wormwood, its bitterness affects us. In such a constant stream from all things the several qualities are carried and are transmitted in all directions round, and no delay, no respite in the flow is ever granted, since we constantly have feeling, and may at any time see smell and hear the sound of anything.

Dunster: Another notable instance which fully proves with how swift a motion the images are carried on is this: as soon as a bowl of clear water is placed in the open air, in starlight night, the shining stars are seen twinkling in the still water; don’t you see therefore in what point of time the images descend upon the earth from the upper regions of the air? Again then, and again, you must allow that particles are perpetually flowing fro the surface of bodies, which present themselves to our eyes and strike our sight: from some bodies a train of smells are always flying off, so cold is emitted from the rivers, heat from the sun, a salt vapor from the water of the sea that eats through walls along the shore, and sounds are always flying through the air. Lastly, as we walk upon the strand a salt taste offends our mouth; and when we see a bunch of wormwood bruised, the bitterness strikes upon the palate. So plain it is that something is continually flowing off from all bodies, and is scattered all about; there is no intermission, the seeds never cease to flow, because we still continue to feel, to see, to smell, and hear.

Latin: Hoc etiam in primis specimen verum esse videtur, quam celeri motu rerum simulacra ferantur, quod simul ac primum sub diu splendor aquai ponitur, extemplo caelo stellante serena sidera respondent in aqua radiantia mundi. iamne vides igitur quam puncto tempore imago aetheris ex oris in terrarum accidat oras? quare etiam atque etiam mitti fateare necessest corpora quae feriant oculos visumque lacessant. perpetuoque fluunt certis ab rebus odores, frigus ut a fluviis, calor ab sole, aestus ab undis aequoris, exesor moerorum litora circum, nec variae cessant voces volitare per auras. denique in os salsi venit umor saepe saporis, cum mare versamur propter, dilutaque contra cum tuimur misceri absinthia, tangit amaror. usque adeo omnibus ab rebus res quaeque fluenter fertur et in cunctas dimittitur undique partis nec mora nec requies interdatur ulla fluendi, perpetuo quoniam sentimus et omnia semper cernere odorari licet et sentire sonare.

Munro: Again since a particular figure felt by the hands in the dark is known to be the same which is seen in the bright light of day, touch and sight must be excited by a quite similar cause. Well then if we handle a square thing and it excites our attention in the dark, in the daylight what square thing will be able to fall on our sight, except the image of that thing? Therefore the cause of it is plain lies in images and no thing can be perceived without them.

Dunster: Besides, since any figure we feel with our hands in the dark, we know to be the same we before saw by day, and in the clearest light, the touch and sight must needs be moved by the same cause; and therefore, if we feel a quadrangular figure and distinguish its shape in the dark, what can present that shape to us in the light but its quadrangular image? The cause therefore of our sight must arise from the images, nor indeed can we distinguish any thing without them.

Latin: Praeterea quoniam manibus tractata figura in tenebris quaedam cognoscitur esse eadem quae cernitur in luce et claro candore, necessest consimili causa tactum visumque moveri. nunc igitur si quadratum temptamus et id nos commovet in tenebris, in luci quae poterit res accidere ad speciem quadrata, nisi eius imago? esse in imaginibus qua propter causa videtur cernundi neque posse sine his res ulla videri.

Munro: Well, the idols of things I speak of are borne along all round and are discharged and transmitted in all directions; but because we can see with the eyes alone, the consequence is that, to whatever point we turn our sight, there all the several things meet and strike it with their shape and color. And the image gives the power to see and the means to distinguish how far each thing is distant from us; for as soon as ever it is discharged, it pushes before it and impels all the air which lies between it and the eyes; and thus that air all streams through our eyes and brushes so to say the pupils and so passes through.

Dunster: Now these images I am speaking of are carried about every way, and are thrown off and scattered on all sides; and therefore it is, since with our eyes alone we are able to see, that which way soever we turn our eyes, the objects strike upon them in their proper form and color. The image likewise is the cause that we discover, and takes care to satisfy us at what distance bodies are removed from us, for as soon as it is emitted, it instantly thrusts forward, and drives on the air that is placed between itself and the sight; this stream of air then glides to the eye, and as it were grates gently upon the ball, and so passes through.

Latin: Nunc ea quae dico rerum simulacra feruntur undique et in cunctas iaciuntur didita partis; verum nos oculis quia solis cernere quimus, propterea fit uti, speciem quo vertimus, omnes res ibi eam contra feriant forma atque colore.

Munro: The consequence is that we see how far distant each thing is. And the greater the quantity of air which is driven on before it and the larger the current which brushes our eyes, the more distant each different thing is seen to be. You must know these processes go on with extreme rapidity, so that at one and the same moment we see what like a thing is and how far distant it is.

Dunster: Hence it is that we perceive how far things are distant from our sight; for the more air there is that is driven before the image, and the longer the stream of it that rubs upon the ball, the longer the interval of space between the object and the eye must be allowed to be. All this is done with the utmost celerity, for we see what the object is and know its distance in the same instance.

Latin: Et quantum quaeque ab nobis res absit, imago efficit ut videamus et internoscere curat; nam cum mittitur, extemplo protrudit agitque aëra qui inter se cumque est oculosque locatus, isque ita per nostras acies perlabitur omnis et quasi perterget pupillas atque ita transit. propterea fit uti videamus quam procul absit res quaeque. et quanto plus aëris ante agitatur et nostros oculos perterget longior aura, tam procul esse magis res quaeque remota videtur. scilicet haec summe celeri ratione geruntur, quale sit ut videamus, et una quam procul absit.

Munro: And this must by no means be deemed strange herein that, while the idols which strike the eyes cannot be seen one at a time, the things themselves are seen. For thus when the wind too beats us with successive strokes and when piercing cold streams, we are not wont to feel each single particle of that wind and cold, but rather the whole result; and then we perceive blows take effect on our body just as if something or other were beating it and giving us a sensation of its body outside. Again when we thump a stone with a finger, we touch merely the outermost color on the surface of the stone, and yet we do not feel that color by our touch, but rather we feel the very hardness of the stone seated in its inmost depths.

Dunster: Nor are we to think it at all strange in this case that the objects may be perfectly seen, and yet the images that singly strike the eye cannot themselves be discovered, for when the wind blows gently upon us, and its sharp cold pierces our bodies, we cannot distinguish the several particles of wind or cold that so affect us, but we are sensible of their whole strength together; we perceive their blows laid upon our bodies as if something were beating us, and made us feel the effects of its outward force upon us. And so when we strike a stone with our fingers we touch the surface and out most color of the stone, but then we feel nothing of the color or surface by our touch, we perceive no more than the hardness of the stone that lies within.

Latin: Illud in his rebus minime mirabile habendumst, cur, ea quae feriant oculos simulacra videri singula cum nequeant, res ipsae perspiciantur. ventus enim quoque paulatim cum verberat et cum acre fluit frigus, non privam quamque solemus particulam venti sentire et frigoris eius, sed magis unorsum, fierique perinde videmus corpore tum plagas in nostro tam quam aliquae res verberet atque sui det sensum corporis extra. praeterea lapidem digito cum tundimus, ipsum tangimus extremum saxi summumque colorem nec sentimus eum tactu, verum magis ipsam duritiem penitus saxi sentimus in alto.

Munro: Now mark, and learn why the image is seen beyond the mirror; for without doubt it is seen withdrawn far within. The case is just the same as with things which are viewed in their reality beyond a door, when it offers through it an unobstructed prospect and lets many things outside be seen from a house. That vision too is effected by two separate airs: first there is an air seen in such a case inside the doorway; next come the leaves of the door right and left; next a light outside brushes the eyes, then a second air, then those things outside which are viewed in their reality. Thus when the image of the mirror has first discharged itself, in coming to our sight it pushes forward and impels all the air which lies between it and the eyes, and enables us to see the whole of it before the mirror. But when we have perceived the mirror as well, at once the image which is conveyed from us reaches the mirror and then is reflected and comes back to our eyes, and drives on and rolls in front of it a second air and lets us see this before itself, and for this reason it looks so far withdrawn from the mirror. Wherefore again and again I repeat there is no cause at all to wonder why the images give back the reflection from the surface of mirrors in the spot they do, since in both the given cases the result is produced by two airs.

Dunster: And now learn why the image is always seen beyond the glass, for it certainly appears at a remote distance from us. For instance: when you are placed in an inner room, and things are seen at a distance from you, when the door is open, and gives you a clear prospect, and allows you plainly to discover any object without, your sight in this case is formed, as I may say, by a double air; the air that lies within the door is the first, then the door is placed in the middle between, and then the light without that rubs gently upon the eye, this is the other air; and at length the object is discovered. So when the image of the glass first flies off, as it makes a passage to our sight, it strikes forward, and drives on the air that lies between itself and the eye, so that we feel all this interjacent air before we see anything of the glass; but when we discovery the glass, the image that is emitted from us instantly flies to it, and being reflected and sent back, returns again to our sight, and forces the air that is before it, which is the reason that we perceive this interjacent air before the image is seen by us. Now when two airs are driven (the image of the glass forcing on one, and the image reflected another) the interval must of necessity be more extended, and even doubled. Hence it is that the images appears not in the surface of the glass, but beyond it, and therefore we are not to wonder at all that the images of things reflected to our sight, from the surface of a smooth glass, by means of a double air, because it appears plainly that they are so.

Latin: Nunc age, cur ultra speculum videatur imago percipe: nam certe penitus remmota videtur. quod genus illa foris quae vere transpiciuntur, ianua cum per se transpectum praebet apertum, multa facitque foris ex aedibus ut videantur; is quoque enim duplici geminoque fit aëre visus. primus enim citra postes tum cernitur aër, inde fores ipsae dextra laevaque secuntur, post extraria lux oculos perterget et aër alter, et illa foris quae vere transpiciuntur. sic ubi se primum speculi proiecit imago, dum venit ad nostras acies, protrudit agitque aëra qui inter se cumquest oculosque locatus, et facit, ut prius hunc omnem sentire queamus quam speculum; sed ubi [in] speculum quoque sensimus ipsum, continuo a nobis in eum quae fertur imago pervenit, et nostros oculos reiecta revisit atque alium prae se propellens aëra volvit, et facit ut prius hunc quam se videamus, eoque distare ab speculo tantum semota videtur. quare etiam atque etiam minime mirarier est par * * * illis quae reddunt speculorum ex aequore visum, aëribus binis quoniam res confit utraque.

Munro: To proceed, the right side of our body is seen in mirrors to be on the left, because when the image comes and strikes on the plane of the mirror, it is not turned back unaltered, but is beaten out in a right line backwards, just as if you were to take a plaster mask before it is dry and dash it on a pillar or beam, and it forthwith were to preserve the lines of its features undistorted in front and were to strike out an exact copy of itself straight backwards. The result will be that the eye which was right will now be left; and conversely the left become the right.

Dunster: But more: That the part of the body that is the right side appears in the glass to be the left, because the image, when it strikes upon the surface of the glass, is not reflected again unchanged, but is turned a different way about. For instance: Take a mask made of clay, before it is dry, and dash it against a pillar or beam; if it preserves its figure entire, and appears inverted only so that the face fills up the hollow, the event will be that the right eye will now be the left, and the left the right.

Latin: Nunc ea quae nobis membrorum dextera pars est, in speculis fit ut in laeva videatur eo quod planitiem ad speculi veniens cum offendit imago, non convertitur incolumis, sed recta retrorsum sic eliditur, ut siquis, prius arida quam sit cretea persona, adlidat pilaeve trabive, atque ea continuo rectam si fronte figuram servet et elisam retro sese exprimat ipsa. fiet ut, ante oculus fuerit qui dexter, ut idem nunc sit laevus et e laevo sit mutua dexter.

Munro: An image may also be so transmitted from one mirror to another that five or six idols are often produced. And thus all the things which lurk in the inmost corners of a house, however far they are withdrawn into tortuous recesses, may yet be all brought out through winding passages by the aid of a number of mirrors and be seen to be in the house. So unfailingly does the image reflect itself from mirror to mirror; and when the left side is presented, it becomes the right in the new image; then it is changed back again and turns round to what it was.

Dunster: And then it may be contrived that the image shall pass from one glass into another, so that five or six images shall be reflected at once; and objects that are placed backwards in the inward part of the house, let them be ever so much out of sight, and the turnings ever so crooked, they may be drawn out through the winding passages, and by the placing of so many glasses be perfectly discovered. The image may be so transferred from one glass into another that it will change its left into its right, but when it is again reflected from the second glass into the third it will resume its left part again, and will continue to change in the same manner as it passes into all the glasses that follow.

Latin: Fit quoque de speculo in speculum ut tradatur imago, quinque etiam [aut] sex ut fieri simulacra suërint. nam quae cumque retro parte interiore latebunt, inde tamen, quamvis torte penitusque remota, omnia per flexos aditus educta licebit pluribus haec speculis videantur in aedibus esse. usque adeo speculo in speculum translucet imago, et cum laeva data est, fit rusum ut dextera fiat, inde retro rursum redit et convertit eodem.

Munro: Moreover all little sides of mirrors which possess a curvature resembling our side, send back to us idols with their right corresponding to our right either for this reason, because the image is transmitted from one mirror to another, and then after it has been twice struck out flies to us, or else because the image, when it has come to the mirror, wheels about, because the curved shape of the mirror teaches it to turn round and face us.

Dunster: But in glasses joined together in the convex figure of a pillar, the side of the image reflected is returned so that the right part of the image answers to the right of the object or thing seen; either because the image, being transferred from one glass into another, is reflected twice, or that the image, when it comes to us, is turned about; for that the face is turned about as it passes backwards we learn from the figure of the glass.

Latin: Quin etiam quae cumque latuscula sunt speculorum adsimili lateris flexura praedita nostri, dextera ea propter nobis simulacra remittunt, aut quia de speculo in speculum transfertur imago, inde ad nos elisa bis advolat, aut etiam quod circum agitur, cum venit, imago propterea quod flexa figura docet speculi convertier ad nos.

Munro: Again you would think that idols step out and put down their foot at the same time with us and mimic our action, because from before whatever part of a mirror you move away, from that part forthwith no idols can be reflected; since nature constrains all things, when they are carried back and recoil from things, to be given back at angles equal to those at which they impinged.

Dunster: Besides, you would believe that the image moves with us, and attends all our steps, and imitates our gestures, because, when you retire from any part of the glass, the image cannot be reflected from that part; for Nature ordains that all images that are emitted from bodies should be returned and reflected by equal angles.

Latin: Indugredi porro pariter simulacra pedemque ponere nobiscum credas gestumque imitari propterea quia, de speculi qua parte recedas, continuo nequeunt illinc simulacra reverti; omnia quandoquidem cogit natura referri ac resilire ab rebus ad aequos reddita flexus.

Munro: Bright things again the eyes eschew and shun to look upon: the sun even blinds them, if you persist in turning them towards it, because its power is great and idols are borne through the clear air with great downward force from on high, and strike the eyes, and disorder their fastenings. Moreover any vivid brightness often bums the eyes, because it contains many seeds of fire which make a way in and beget pain in the eyes.

Dunster: The eyes, you observe, fly and avoid a glaring object; the sun likewise blinds you if you look too intensely against it, because its force is great, and its images are discharged from above through the pure air, and strike violently upon the eyes, and disturb and loosen their contexture; besides, a brightness too powerful for the sight often burns the eye, because it contains many seeds of fire, which piercing the ball, give it sensible pain.

Latin: Splendida porro oculi fugitant vitantque tueri. sol etiam caecat, contra si tendere pergas, propterea quia vis magnast ipsius et alte aëra per purum simulacra feruntur et feriunt oculos turbantia composituras. Praeterea splendor qui cumque est acer adurit saepe oculos ideo quod semina possidet ignis multa, dolorem oculis quae gignunt insinuando.

Munro: Again whatever the jaundiced look at becomes a greenish-yellow, because many seeds of greenish-yellow stream from their body and meet the idols of things, and many too are mixed up in their eyes, and these by their infection tinge all things with sallow hues.

Dunster: And then, whatever a person looks upon that has the yellow jaundice becomes pale and lurid; because many lurid seeds flow from such a body, and meet with the images of things as they advance. And further, there are many seeds within the eyes of one so distempered which stain all things with their infection and make them look pale.

Latin: lurida praeterea fiunt quae cumque tuentur arquati, quia luroris de corpore eorum semina multa fluunt simulacris obvia rerum, multaque sunt oculis in eorum denique mixta, quae contage sua palloribus omnia pingunt.

Munro: Again we see out of the dark things which are in the light for this reason: when the black air of darkness being the nearer has first entered and taken possession of the open eyes, the bright white air follows straightway after and cleanses them so to say and dispels the black shadows of the other air; for this is a great deal more nimble, a great deal more subtle and more efficacious. As soon as it has filled with light and opened up the passages of the eyes which the black air had before blocked up, forthwith the idols of things which are situated in the light follow and excite them so that we see. This we cannot do conversely in the dark out of the light, because the grosser air of darkness follows behind and quite fills all the openings and blocks up the passages of the eyes, not letting the idols of any things at all be thrown into the eyes to move them.

Dunster: Again, if we are placed in the dark, we see objects that are in the light, because when the dark air, which is nearer, first enters and takes possession of the open eyes, the bright clear air immediately follows, which as it were purges the eye and dissipates the darkness the dusky air has infused into it; for this lucid air is by many degrees more apt to move, is more subtle, and has more force. This, as soon as it has filled the passages of the eyes with light, and opened those pores that the dark air has stopped before, the images of things conveyed in the light immediately follow, and strike upon the eye, and move the sight. But if we are placed in the light, we cannot discover objects in the dark, because a train of dark and thicker air follows the bright, which is nearest the eye, and stops up all the pores, and so chokes up the passages of the sight that the images of things cannot be moved or received into it.

Latin: E tenebris autem quae sunt in luce tuemur propterea quia, cum propior caliginis aër ater init oculos prior et possedit apertos, insequitur candens confestim lucidus aër, qui quasi purgat eos ac nigras discutit umbras aëris illius; nam multis partibus hic est mobilior multisque minutior et mage pollens. qui simul atque vias oculorum luce replevit atque pate fecit, quas ante obsederat aër , continuo rerum simulacra secuntur, quae sita sunt in luce, lacessuntque ut videamus. quod contra facere in tenebris e luce nequimus propterea quia posterior caliginis aër crassior insequitur, qui cuncta foramina complet obsiditque vias oculorum, ne simulacra possint ullarum rerum coniecta moveri.

Munro: Again when we descry far off the square towers of a town, they often appear to be round for this reason: all the angles are seen from a distance to look obtuse, or rather are not seen at all, and their blow is lost and their stroke never makes its way to our sight, because while the idols are borne on through much air, the air by repeated collisions blunts the stroke perforce. When in this way all the angles have together eluded the sense, the stone structures are rounded off as if by the lathe; yet they do not look like the things which are close before us and really round, but somewhat resembling them as in shadowy outline.

Dunster: Further, when we see the square towers of a city at a distance they commonly appear round to us, because all angles, seen far off, show obtuse, or rather they do not show at all. Their strokes die away, and the blows never reach our eyes, for, as the images are carried through a long tract of air, the air beats upon them continually in their passage, and so wears off their corners. Hence it is that since no manner of angle strikes the eye the stony fabric appears of a circular figure; yet the roundness is not so distinct as if the object itself were really round and seen at a small distance, but it bears a kind of resemblance to such a figure, yet is not completely so.

Latin: Quadratasque procul turris cum cernimus urbis, propterea fit uti videantur saepe rutundae, angulus optusus quia longe cernitur omnis sive etiam potius non cernitur ac perit eius plaga nec ad nostras acies perlabitur ictus, aëra per multum quia dum simulacra feruntur, cogit hebescere eum crebris offensibus aër. hoc ubi suffugit sensum simul angulus omnis. fit quasi ut ad turnum saxorum structa tuantur; non tamen ut coram quae sunt vereque rutunda, sed quasi adumbratim paulum simulata videntur.

Munro: Our shadow likewise seems to move in the sunshine and to follow our steps and mimic our action; if you think forsooth that air deprived of life can step, imitating the motions and the actions of men; for that which we are wont to term shadow can be nothing but air devoid of light. Sure enough, because the earth in certain spots successively is deprived of light wherever we intercept it in moving about, while that part of it which we have quitted is filled with light, therefore that which was the shadow of our body, seems to have always followed us unchanged in a direct line with us. For new rays of light ever pour in and the old are lost, just as if wool were drawn into the fire. Therefore the earth is readily stripped of light, and again filled, and cleanses itself from black shadows.

Dunster: Our shadows seem to move with us in the sun, to follow our steps, and imitate our gestures (if you can suppose that air, void of light, is able to walk, and to follow the motions and gestures of the body; for what we usually call shadow can be nothing but the air deprived of light). The reason is because as we walk we hinder the rays of the sun from striking upon a certain part of the earth, which by that means becomes dark; but that as we leave the place it is covered with light, and therefore it is that the shadow of the body over against it follows us in all our motions. For a train of new rays are continually flowing from the sun; and the first dies away like thread of wool drawn through a flame, and by this means that part of the earth is soon deprived of light, and again becomes bright, and discharges the black shade that hung upon it.

Latin: Umbra videtur item nobis in sole moveri et vestigia nostra sequi gestumque imitari, aëra si credis privatum lumine posse indugredi, motus hominum gestumque sequentem; nam nihil esse potest aliud nisi lumine cassus aër id quod nos umbram perhibere suëmus. ni mirum, quia terra locis ex ordine certis lumine privatur solis qua cumque meantes officimus, repletur item quod liquimus eius, propterea fit uti videatur, quae fuit umbra corporis, e regione eadem nos usque secuta. semper enim nova se radiorum lumina fundunt primaque dispereunt, quasi in ignem lana trahatur. propterea facile et spoliatur lumine terra et repletur item nigrasque sibi abluit umbras.

Munro: And yet in all this we do not admit that the eyes are cheated one whit, for it is their province to observe in what spot soever light and shade are; but whether the lights are still the same or not, and whether it is the same shadow which was in this spot that is now passing to that, or whether what we said a little before is not rather the fact, this the reason of the mind, and only it, has to determine; nor can the eyes know the nature of things. Do not then fasten upon the eyes this frailty of the mind.

Dunster: But in this case we are not in the least to allow that the eyes are deceived; it is their business to discover only where the light and shade are, but to determine nothing whether the light be the same, or the shadow be the same that moves from one place to another, or whether it be as we explained above. It is the office of the mind and judgment to distinguish this, for the eyes can know nothing of the nature of things, and therefore you are not to impute to them the failures of the mind.

Latin: Nec tamen hic oculos falli concedimus hilum. nam quo cumque loco sit lux atque umbra tueri illorum est; eadem vero sint lumina necne, umbraque quae fuit hic eadem nunc transeat illuc, an potius fiat paulo quod diximus ante, hoc animi demum ratio discernere debet, nec possunt oculi naturam noscere rerum. proinde animi vitium hoc oculis adfingere noli.

Munro: The ship in which we are sailing moves on while seeming to stand still; that one which remains at its moorings is believed to be passing by. The hills and fields seem to be dropping astern, past which we are driving our ship and flying under sail.

Dunster: When we are on ship-board, the vessel drives on when it seems to stand still, and when it lies at anchor it seems to move; the hills and plains seem to fly and retire from us as we row, or scour with full sails before the wind.

Latin: Qua vehimur navi, fertur, cum stare videtur; quae manet in statione, ea praeter creditur ire. et fugere ad puppim colles campique videntur, quos agimus praeter navem velisque volamus.

Munro: The stars all seem to be at rest fast fixed to the ethereal vaults, and yet are all in constant motion, since they rise and then go back to their far-off places of setting after they have traversed the length of heaven with their bright bodies. In like manner sun and moon seem to stay in one place, bodies which simple fact proves are carried on.

Dunster: And thus all the stars seem fixed in the vaulted sky, when they are all in continual motion: they rise, and when they have measured the heavens with their bright orbs, they set again at an immense distance. The sun and moon, by the same rule, appear fixed, when experience tells us that they move.

Latin: Sidera cessare aetheriis adfixa cavernis cuncta videntur, et adsiduo sunt omnia motu, quandoquidem longos obitus exorta revisunt, cum permensa suo sunt caelum corpore claro. solque pari ratione manere et luna videtur in statione, ea quae ferri res indicat ipsa.

Munro: And though between mountains rising up afar off from amid the waters there opens out for fleets a free passage of wide extent, yet a single island seems to be formed out of them united into one.

Dunster: And mountains, standing at a distance from one another in the middle of the sea, so that a fleet of ships may sail easily between them, appear like one continued ridge of rocks, and though widely separated, yet show like one vast island, formed by all of them joined together.

Latin: Exstantisque procul medio de gurgite montis classibus inter quos liber patet exitus ingens, insula coniunctis tamen ex his una videtur.

Munro: When children have stopped turning round themselves, the halls appear to them to whirl about and the pillars to course round to such a degree, that they can scarce believe that the whole roof is not threatening to tumble down upon them.

Dunster: So boys, when they have made themselves giddy, so strongly fancy that the walls are turned about, and the pillars run round, that even when they stand still, they can scarce believe but that the whole house threatens to tumble upon their heads.

Latin: Atria versari et circum cursare columnae usque adeo fit uti pueris videantur, ubi ipsi desierunt verti, vix ut iam credere possint non supra sese ruere omnia tecta minari.

Munro: Again when nature begins to raise on high the sun’s beam ruddy with bickering fires and to lift it up above the mountains, those hills above which the sun then seems to you to be, as blazing close at hand he dyes them with his own fire, are distant from us scarce two thousand arrow-flights, yea often scarce five hundred casts of a javelin; and yet between them and the sun lie immense levels of sea, spread out below the huge borders of ether, and many thousands of lands are between, held by divers peoples and races of wild beasts.

Dunster: Thus, when nature begins to display the bright splendor of the sun with trembling light, and to raise it above the top of the mountains, that hill over which the sun just appears, and glowing seems to scorch with his beams, is scarce two thousand bow-shot distant from us, perhaps not five hundred casts of a dart; when yet, between that and the sun lie many mighty seas, spread under a vast expansion of the heavens; many thousand leagues of land lie between, possessed by many nations, and the whole race of wild beasts.

Latin: Iamque rubrum tremulis iubar ignibus erigere alte cum coeptat natura supraque extollere montes, quos tibi tum supra sol montis esse videtur comminus ipse suo contingens fervidus igni, vix absunt nobis missus bis mille sagittae, vix etiam cursus quingentos saepe veruti; inter eos solemque iacent immania ponti aequora substrata aetheriis ingentibus oris, interiectaque sunt terrarum milia multa, quae variae retinent gentes et saecla ferarum.

Munro: Then a puddle of water not more than a finger-breadth deep, which stands between the stones in the streets, offers a prospect beneath the earth of a reach as vast, as that with which the high yawning maw of heaven opens out above the earth; so that you seem to discern clouds and see the bodies of birds far withdrawn into that wondrous sky beneath the earth.

Dunster: So a puddle of water, no deeper than one of your fingers, that lies in the street between the stones, affords a prospect so deep under the earth as the distance between the earth and the wide arch of heaven, so that you seem to look down upon the clouds to take a clear survey of the sky and view with wonder the celestial bodies contained in it, as they seem beneath the earth.

Latin: At coniectus aquae digitum non altior unum, qui lapides inter sistit per strata viarum, despectum praebet sub terras inpete tanto, a terris quantum caeli patet altus hiatus, nubila despicere et caelum ut videare videre, corpora mirande sub terras abdita caelo.

Munro: Again when our stout horse has stuck in the middle of a river and we have looked down on the swift waters of the stream, some force seems to carry athwart the current the body of the horse which is standing still and to force it rapidly up the stream; and to whatever point we cast our eyes about, all things seem to be carried on and to be flowing in the same way as we are.

Dunster: Observe, when your mettled horse stands still with you in the middle of a river, and you look down upon the rapid stream of the water, the force of the current seems to drive your horse violently upwards, and hurry you swiftly against the tide; and on which side soever you cast your eyes, all things seem to be borne along, and carried against the current in the same manner.

Latin: Denique ubi in medio nobis ecus acer obhaesit flumine et in rapidas amnis despeximus undas, stantis equi corpus transversum ferre videtur vis et in adversum flumen contrudere raptim, et quo cumque oculos traiecimus omnia ferri et fluere adsimili nobis ratione videntur.

Munro: Again although a portico runs in parallel lines from one end to the other and stands supported by equal columns along its whole extent, yet when, from the top of it, it is seen in its entire length, it gradually forms the contracted top of a narrowing cone, until uniting roof with floor and all the right side with the left it has brought them together into the vanishing point of a cone.

Dunster: A long portico, though it be of equal breadth from one end to the other, and reaches far, supported by pillars of equal height, yet when you stand at one end to take a view of its whole extent, it contracts itself by degrees to a narrow point at the further end; the roof touches the floor, and both sides seem to meet, ‘til it terminates at last in the sharp figure of a dark cone.

Latin: Porticus aequali quamvis est denique ductu stansque in perpetuum paribus suffulta columnis, longa tamen parte ab summa cum tota videtur, paulatim trahit angusti fastigia coni, tecta solo iungens atque omnia dextera laevis donec in obscurum coni conduxit acumen.

Munro: To sailors on the sea the sun appears to rise out of the waters and in the waters to set and bury his light; just because they behold nothing but water and sky; that you may not lightly suppose the credit of the senses to be shaken on all hands.

Dunster: The sun, to Mariners, seems to rise out of the sea, and there again to set and hide his light; for they see nothing but the water and the sky; but therefore you are not to conclude rashly that the senses are at all deceived.

Latin: In pelago nautis ex undis ortus in undis sol fit uti videatur obire et condere lumen; quippe ubi nil aliud nisi aquam caelumque tuentur; ne leviter credas labefactari undique sensus.

Munro: Then to people unacquainted with the sea ships in harbor seem to be all askew and with poop fittings broken to be pressing up against the water. For whatever part of the oars is raised above the saltwater is straight, and the rudders in their upper half are straight: the parts which are sunk below the water-level appear to be broken and bent round and to slope up and turn back towards the surface and to be so much twisted back as well nigh to float on the top of the water.

Dunster: To those who know nothing of the sea, a ship in the port seems disabled, and to strive against the waves with broken oars; for that part of the oar and of the rudder that is above the water appears straight, but all below, being refracted, seems to be turned upwards, and to be bent towards the top of the water, and to float almost upon the surface of it.

Latin: At maris ignaris in portu clauda videntur navigia aplustris fractis obnitier undis. nam quae cumque supra rorem salis edita pars est remorum, recta est, et recta superne guberna; quae demersa liquore obeunt, refracta videntur omnia converti sursumque supina reverti et reflexa prope in summo fluitare liquore.

Munro: And when the winds carry the thinly scattered clouds across heaven in the night time, then do the glittering signs appear to glide athwart the rack and to be traveling on high in a direction quite different to their real course.

Dunster: So when the winds drive the light clouds along the sky in the night, the moon and stars seem to fly against the clouds, and to be driven above them in a course quite opposite to that in which they naturally move.

Latin: Raraque per caelum cum venti nubila portant tempore nocturno, tum splendida signa videntur labier adversum nimbos atque ire superne longe aliam in partem ac vera ratione feruntur

Munro: Then if our hand chance to be placed beneath one eye and press it below, through a certain sensation all things which we look at appear then to become double as we look; the light of lamps brilliant with flames to be double, double too the furniture through the whole house, double men’s faces and men’s bodies.

Dunster: And if you chance to press with your fingers under one of your eyes, the effect will be that every thing you look upon will appear double, every bright candle will burn with two flames, and all the furniture of the house will multiply and show double; every face about you, and every body, will look like two.

Latin: At si forte oculo manus uni subdita supter pressit eum, quodam sensu fit uti videantur omnia quae tuimur fieri tum bina tuendo, bina lucernarum florentia lumina flammis binaque per totas aedis geminare supellex et duplicis hominum facies et corpora bina.

Munro: Again when sleep has chained down our limbs in sweet slumber and the whole body is sunk in profound repose, yet then we seem to ourselves to be awake and to be moving our limbs, and mid the thick darkness of night we think we see the sun and the daylight; and though in a confined room, we seem to be passing to new climates seas rivers and mountains and to be crossing plains on foot and to hear noises, though the austere silence of night prevails all round, and to be uttering speech though quite silent.

Dunster: Lastly, when sleep has bound our limbs in sweet repose, and all the body lies dissolved in rest, we think ourselves awake; our members move, and in the gloomy darkness of the night we think we see the sun in broad day-light, and, though confined in bed, we wander over the heavens, the sea, the rivers, and the hills, and fancy we are walking through the plains. And sounds we seem to hear; and, though the tongue be still, we seem to speak, when the deep silence of night reigns all about us.

Latin: Denique cum suavi devinxit membra sopore somnus et in summa corpus iacet omne quiete, tum vigilare tamen nobis et membra movere nostra videmur, et in noctis caligine caeca cernere censemus solem lumenque diurnum, conclusoque loco caelum mare flumina montis mutare et campos pedibus transire videmur, et sonitus audire, severa silentia noctis undique cum constent, et reddere dicta tacentes.

Munro: Many are the other marvels of this sort we see, which all seek to shake as it were the credit of the senses: quite in vain, since the greatest part of these cases cheats us on account of the mental suppositions which we add of ourselves, taking those things as seen which have not been seen by the senses. For nothing is harder than to separate manifest facts from doubtful which straightway the mind adds on of itself.

Dunster: Many more things of this kind we observe and wonder at, which attempt to overthrow the certainty of our senses, but to no purpose - for things of this sort generally deceive us upon account of the judgment of the mind which we apply to them, and so we conclude we see things which we really do not; for nothing is more difficult than to distinguish things clear and plain from such as are doubtful, to which the mind is ready to add its assent, as it is inclined to believe everything imparted by the senses.

Latin: Cetera de genere hoc mirande multa videmus, quae violare fidem quasi sensibus omnia quaerunt, ne quiquam, quoniam pars horum maxima fallit propter opinatus animi, quos addimus ipsi, pro visis ut sint quae non sunt sensibus visa; nam nihil aegrius est quam res secernere apertas ab dubiis, animus quas ab se protinus addit.

Munro: Again if a man believe that nothing is known, he knows not whether this even can be known, since he admits he knows nothing. I will therefore decline to argue the case against him who places himself with head where his feet should be. And yet granting that he knows this, I would still put this question, since he has never yet seen any truth in things, whence he knows what knowing and not knowing severally are, and what it is that has produced the knowledge of the true and the false and what has proved the doubtful to differ from the certain.

Dunster: Lastly, if anyone thinks that he knows nothing, he cannot be sure that he knows this, when he confesses that he knows nothing at all. I shall avoid disputing with such a trifler, who perverts all things, and like a tumbler with his head prone to the earth, can go no otherwise than backwards. And yet allow that he knows this, I would ask (since he had nothing before to lead him into such a knowledge) whence he had the notion what it was to know, or not to know; what it was that gave him an idea of Truth or Falsehood, and what taught him to distinguish between doubt and certainty?

Latin: Denique nil sciri siquis putat, id quoque nescit an sciri possit, quoniam nil scire fatetur. hunc igitur contra minuam contendere causam, qui capite ipse suo in statuit vestigia sese. et tamen hoc quoque uti concedam scire, at id ipsum quaeram, cum in rebus veri nil viderit ante, unde sciat quid sit scire et nescire vicissim, notitiam veri quae res falsique crearit et dubium certo quae res differre probarit.

Munro: You will find that from the senses first has proceeded the knowledge of the true and the false and that the senses cannot be refuted. For that which is of itself to be able to refute things false by true things must from the nature of the case be proved to have the higher certainty. Well then, what must fairly be accounted of higher certainty than sense? Shall reason founded on false sense be able to contradict them, wholly founded as it is on the senses? And if they are not true, then all reason as well is rendered false. Or shall the ears be able to take the eyes to task, or the touch the ears? Again shall the taste call in question this touch, or the nostrils refute or the eyes controvert it? Not so, I guess; for each apart has its own distinct office, each its own power; and therefore we must perceive what is soft and cold or hot by one distinct faculty, by another perceive the different colors of things and thus see all objects which are conjoined with color. Taste too has its faculty apart; smells spring from one source, sounds from another. It must follow therefore that any one sense cannot confute any other. No nor can any sense take itself to task, since equal credit must be assigned to it at all times. What therefore has at any time appeared true to each sense, is true.

Dunster: But you will find that knowledge of truth is originally derived from the senses, nor can the senses be contradicted, for whatever is able by the evidence of an opposite truth to convince the senses of falsehood, must be something of greater certainty than they. But what can deserve greater credit than the senses require from us? Will reason, derived from erring sense, claim the privilege to contradict it? Reason – that depends wholly upon the senses,which unless you allow to be true, all reason must be false. Can the ears correct the eyes? Or the touch the ears? Or will taste confute the touch? Or shall the nose or eyes convince the rest? This, I think, cannot be, for every sense has a separate faculty of its own, each has its distinct powers; and therefore an object, soft or hard, hot or cold, must necessarily be distinguished as soft or hard, hot or cold, by one sense separately, that is, the touch. It is the sole province of another, the sight, to perceive the colors of things, and the several properties that belong to them. The taste has a distinct office. Odors particularly affect the smell, and sound the ears. And therefore it cannot be that one sense should correct another, nor can the same sense correct itself, since an equal credit ought to be given to each; and therefore whatever the senses at any time discover to us must be certain.

Latin: invenies primis ab sensibus esse creatam notitiem veri neque sensus posse refelli. nam maiore fide debet reperirier illud, sponte sua veris quod possit vincere falsa. quid maiore fide porro quam sensus haberi debet? an ab sensu falso ratio orta valebit dicere eos contra, quae tota ab sensibus orta est? qui nisi sunt veri, ratio quoque falsa fit omnis. An poterunt oculos aures reprehendere, an aures tactus? an hunc porro tactum sapor arguet oris, an confutabunt nares oculive revincent? non, ut opinor, ita est. nam seorsum cuique potestas divisast, sua vis cuiquest, ideoque necesse est et quod molle sit et gelidum fervensve videre et seorsum varios rerum sentire colores et quae cumque coloribus sint coniuncta necessest. seorsus item sapor oris habet vim, seorsus odores nascuntur, seorsum sonitus. ideoque necesse est non possint alios alii convincere sensus. nec porro poterunt ipsi reprehendere sese, aequa fides quoniam debebit semper haberi. proinde quod in quoquest his visum tempore, verumst.

Munro: And if reason shall be unable to explain away the cause why things which close at hand were square, at a distance looked round, it yet is better, if you are at a loss for the reason, to state erroneously the causes of each shape than to let slip from your grasp on any side things manifest and ruin the groundwork of belief and wrench up all the foundations on which rest life and existence. For not only would all reason give way, life itself would at once fall to the ground, unless you choose to trust the senses and shun precipices and all things else of this sort that are to be avoided, and to pursue the opposite things. All that host of words then be sure is quite unmeaning which has been drawn out in array against the senses.

Dunster: And though reason is not able to assign a cause why an object that is really four-square when near, should appear round when seen at a distance; yet, if we cannot explain this difficulty, it is better to give any solution, even a false one, than to deliver up all Certainty out of our power, to break in upon our first principle of belief, and tear up all foundations upon which our life and security depend. For not only all reason must be overthrown, but life itself must be immediately extinguished, unless you give credit to your senses. These direct you to fly from a precipice and other evils of this sort which are to be avoided, and to pursue what tends to your security. All therefore is nothing more than an empty parade of words that can be offered against the certainty of sense.

Latin: Et si non poterit ratio dissolvere causam, cur ea quae fuerint iuxtim quadrata, procul sint visa rutunda, tamen praestat rationis egentem reddere mendose causas utriusque figurae, quam manibus manifesta suis emittere quoquam et violare fidem primam et convellere tota fundamenta quibus nixatur vita salusque. non modo enim ratio ruat omnis, vita quoque ipsa concidat extemplo, nisi credere sensibus ausis praecipitisque locos vitare et cetera quae sint in genere hoc fugienda, sequi contraria quae sint. illa tibi est igitur verborum copia cassa omnis, quae contra sensus instructa paratast.

Munro: Once more, as in a building, if the rule first applied is wry, and the square is untrue and swerves from its straight lines, and if there is the slightest hitch in any part of the level, all the construction must be faulty, all must be wry, crooked, sloping, leaning forwards, leaning backwards, without symmetry, so that some parts seem ready to fall, others do fall, ruined all by the first erroneous measurements; so too all reason of things must needs prove to you distorted and false, which is founded on false senses.

Dunster: Lastly, as in a building, if the principle rule of the artificer be not true, if his line be not exact, or his level bear in to the least to either side, every thing must needs be wrong and crooked, the whole fabric must be ill-shaped, declining, hanging over, leaning and irregular, so that some parts will seem ready to fall and tumble down, because the whole was at first disordered by false principles. So the reason of things must of necessity be wrong and false which is founded upon a false representation of the senses.

Latin: Denique ut in fabrica, si pravast regula prima, normaque si fallax rectis regionibus exit, et libella aliqua si ex parti claudicat hilum, omnia mendose fieri atque obstipa necessu est prava cubantia prona supina atque absona tecta, iam ruere ut quaedam videantur velle, ruantque prodita iudiciis fallacibus omnia primis, sic igitur ratio tibi rerum prava necessest falsaque sit, falsis quae cumque ab sensibus ortast.

Munro: And now to explain in what way the other senses do each perceive their several objects, is the nowise arduous task which is still left.

Dunster: And now, in what manner each of the other senses distinguishes its proper object is a subject of no great difficulty to explain.

Latin: Nunc alii sensus quo pacto quisque suam rem sentiat, haud quaquam ratio scruposa relicta est.

Munro: In the first place, all sound and voice is heard when they have made their way into the ears and have struck with their body the sense of hearing.

Dunster: And first, sound and all voices are heard when they enter the ears, and strike with their bodies upon the sense; for we must allow that sound and voice are bodies, because they have power to make impression upon the sense;

Latin: Principio auditur sonus et vox omnis, in auris insinuata suo pepulere ubi corpore sensum.

Munro: For voice too and sound you must admit to be bodily, since they are able to act upon the senses. Again, voice often abrades the throat, and shouting in passing forth makes the windpipe more rough: when to wit the first-beginnings of voices have risen up in larger mass and commenced to pass abroad through their strait passage, you are to know the door of the mouth now crammed itself is abraded.

Dunster: for the voice often scrapes the jaws, and the noise makes the windpipe rough as it passes through. When the seeds of words begin to hurry in a crowd through the narrow nerves, and to rush abroad, those vessels being full, the throat is raked and made hoarse, and the voice wounds the passage through which it goes into the air. There is no question then but voice and words consist of corporeal principles, because they affect and hurt the sense.

Latin: Corpoream quoque enim [vocem] constare fatendumst et sonitum, quoniam possunt inpellere sensus. Praeterea radit vox fauces saepe facitque asperiora foras gradiens arteria clamor, quippe per angustum turba maiore coorta ire foras ubi coeperunt primordia vocum. scilicet expletis quoque ianua raditur oris. haud igitur dubiumst quin voces verbaque constent corporeis e principiis, ut laedere possint.

Munro: There is no doubt then that voices and words consist of bodily first beginnings, with the power to hurt; nor can you fail to know how much of body is taken away and how much is withdrawn from men’s very sinews and strength by a speech continued without interruption from the dawning brightness of morning to the shadow of black night, above all if it has been poured forth with much loud shouting. Voice therefore must be bodily, since a man by much speaking loses a portion from his body.

Dunster: You are likewise to observe how much a continual speaking, from morning to night, takes off from the body; how much it wears away from the very nerves and strength of the speaker, especially if it be delivered in the highest stretch of the voice. Of necessity therefore voice must be a body, because the speaker loses many parts from himself.

Latin: Nec te fallit item quid corporis auferat et quid detrahat ex hominum nervis ac viribus ipsis perpetuus sermo nigrai noctis ad umbram aurorae perductus ab exoriente nitore, praesertim si cum summost clamore profusus. ergo corpoream vocem constare necessest, multa loquens quoniam amittit de corpore partem.

Munro: Next roughness of voice comes from roughness of first-beginnings, as smoothness is produced from smoothness. Nor are the first-beginnings of like shape which pierce the ears in these two cases: when the trumpet brays dully in deep low tones, the barbarian country roused echoing back the hoarse hollow sound, and when swans from the headstrong torrents of Helicon raise their clear-toned dirge with plaintive voice.

Dunster: The roughness then of the voice depends upon the roughness of the seeds, as the smoothness is produced from smooth seeds; nor are the seeds from the same figure that strike the ears when the trumpet sounds with grave and murmuring blasts, as when the sackbut rings with its hoarse noise, or swans in the cold vales of Helicon sing out with mournful notes their sweet complaint.

Latin: Asperitas autem vocis fit ab asperitate principiorum et item levor levore creatur; nec simili penetrant auris primordia forma, cum tuba depresso graviter sub murmure mugit et reboat raucum retro cita barbita bombum, et [iam] Dauliades natae hortis ex Heliconis cum liquidam tollunt lugubri voce querellam.

Munro: When therefore we force these voices forth from the depths of our body and discharge them straight out at the mouth, the pliant tongue, deft fashioner of words, gives them articulate utterance and the structure of the lips does its part in shaping them. Therefore when the distance is not long between the point from which each several voice has started and that at which it arrives, the very words too must be plainly heard and distinguished syllable by syllable; for each voice retains its structure and retains its shape. But if the space between be more than is suitable, the words must be huddled together in passing through much air and the voice be disorganized in its flight through the same. Therefore it is that you can hear a sound, yet cannot distinguish what the meaning of the words is: so huddled and hampered is the voice when it comes.

Dunster: When therefore we press out this voice from the lungs, and send it abroad directly through the open mouth, the nimble tongue, with curious art, fashions it into words, and the motion of the lips assists likewise in the formation of them. And when the distance is not long from whence any voice proceeds, the words must of necessity be plainly heard and articulately distinguished, for in this case the voice preserves its proper frame and figure; but if the interjacent space be more than it should be, the words must needs be confused by reason of the length of air, and the voice be disordered as it passes through. Hence it is that you may hear a sound only, but discover nothing at all of the meaning of the words, the voice becomes so broken and obstructed.

Latin: Hasce igitur penitus voces cum corpore nostro exprimimus rectoque foras emittimus ore, mobilis articulat nervorum daedala lingua, formaturaque labrorum pro parte figurat. hoc ubi non longum spatiumst unde illa profecta perveniat vox quaeque, necessest verba quoque ipsa plane exaudiri discernique articulatim; servat enim formaturam servatque figuram. at si inter positum spatium sit longius aequo, aëra per multum confundi verba necessest et conturbari vocem, dum transvolat auras. ergo fit, sonitum ut possis sentire neque illam internoscere, verborum sententia quae sit; usque adeo confusa venit vox inque pedita.

Munro: Again a single word often stirs the ears of a whole assembly of people, when uttered by the crier’s mouth. One voice therefore in a moment starts asunder into many voices, since it distributes itself separately into all the ears, stamping upon them the form and distinct sound of the word. But such of the voices as do not fall directly on the ears, are carried past and lost, fruitlessly dispersed in air: some striking upon solid spots are thrown back and give back a sound and sometimes mock by an echo of the word.

Dunster: Besides, one sentence delivered from the mouth of a bawling cryer strikes the ears of all about him; for the one general voice, that is pronounced instantly, breaks instantly into innumerable little voices, and so reaches every particular ear, giving a proper form and a distinct sound to every word. But that part of the voice that does not reach the ear is diffused through the air to no purpose, but there dies; some parts strike upon solid places, and being reflected return a sound, and sometimes disappoint us with the echo or image of the word.

Latin: Praeterea verbum saepe unum perciet auris omnibus in populo missum praeconis ab ore. in multas igitur voces vox una repente diffugit, in privas quoniam se dividit auris obsignans formam verbis clarumque sonorem. at quae pars vocum non auris incidit ipsas, praeter lata perit frustra diffusa per auras. pars solidis adlisa locis reiecta sonorem reddit et inter dum frustratur imagine verbi.

Munro: When you fully perceive all this, you may explain to yourself and others how it is that in lonely spots rocks give back in regular succession forms of words like to those sent forth, as we seek our comrades straying about among the darkened hills and with loud voice call upon them scattered abroad. I have seen places give back as many as six or seven voices, when you sent forth one: in such wise did the very hills dash back on hills and repeat the words thus trained to come back.

Dunster: If you well consider this, you will be able to account to yourself and others why, in solitary places, the rocks regularly return words the same with those we speak, while we seek our companions wandering over the dark mountains, or call after them aloud when they are dispersed and lose their way. I myself have seen places that return six words for one; the hills so reverberate the words from one another that they severally repeat them and send them back.

Latin: Quae bene cum videas, rationem reddere possis tute tibi atque aliis, quo pacto per loca sola saxa paris formas verborum ex ordine reddant. palantis comites com montis inter opacos quaerimus et magna dispersos voce ciemus. sex etiam aut septem loca vidi reddere vocis, unam cum iaceres: ita colles collibus ipsi verba repulsantes iterabant dicta referri.

Munro: These spots the people round fancy that the goat-footed satyrs and nymphs inhabit, and tell that they are the fauns by whose night-pervading noise and sportive play as they declare the still silence is broken and sounds produced of stringed instruments and sweet plaintive melodies, such as the pipe pours forth when beaten by the fingers of the players; the country-people hearing far and wide, what time Pan nodding the piny covering of his head half a beast’s oft runs over the gaping reeds with curved lip, making the pipe without ceasing to pour forth its woodland song. Other such like prodigies and marvels they tell of, that they may not haply bethought to inhabit lonely places, abandoned even by the gods. On this account they vaunt such wonders in their stories or are led on by some other reason; inasmuch as the whole race of man is all too greedy after listening ears.

Dunster: The neighboring people fondly imagine such places to be frequented by goat-footed satyrs and nymphs, and tell stories of the fawns. They say that the dead silence of the night is disturbed by their late revels and wanton sports, that they hear the sound of music, and the soft notes of the harp, as the artist touches and sings to it together; that the swains all about can distinguish when Pan, shaking his garland of pine-leaves upon his head, with long-hung lip, runs over the hollow reeds, and so his pipe prolongs his rural song. They speak of many other strange sights, and monstrous fables of the same kind; lest, perhaps, they should be thought to dwell in places where the gods never come, and therefore they invent their wonderful tales like these; or they are induced by some reason or other, as mankind in general are mighty eager after prodigies.

Latin: Haec loca capripedes Satyros Nymphasque tenere finitimi fingunt et Faunos esse locuntur, quorum noctivago strepitu ludoque iocanti adfirmant volgo taciturna silentia rumpi chordarumque sonos fieri dulcisque querellas, tibia quas fundit digitis pulsata canentum, et genus agricolum late sentiscere, quom Pan pinea semiferi capitis velamina quassans unco saepe labro calamos percurrit hiantis, fistula silvestrem ne cesset fundere musam. cetera de genere hoc monstra ac portenta loquontur, ne loca deserta ab divis quoque forte putentur sola tenere. ideo iactant miracula dictis aut aliqua ratione alia ducuntur, ut omne humanum genus est avidum nimis auricularum.

Munro: To proceed, you need not wonder how it is that through places, through which the eyes cannot see plain things, voices come and strike the ears. We often see a conversation go on even through closed doors, sure enough because the voice can pass uninjured through the winding openings of things, while idols refuse to pass: they are torn to shreds, if the openings through which they glide are not straight, like those of glass, through which every image passes.

Dunster: In short, it is nothing strange that those places through which the eye can see nothing, that through such the voice can pass and strike the ears. We can converse together in different rooms, when the doors are shut, as we frequently do, because voice can pierce safely through the crooked pores of bodies, which images cannot, for they are broken if the passages are not straight; such are the pores of glass through which all sorts of images freely find way.

Latin: Quod super est, non est mirandum qua ratione, per loca quae nequeunt oculi res cernere apertas, haec loca per voces veniant aurisque lacessant, conloquium clausis foribus quoque saepe videmus; ni mirum quia vox per flexa foramina rerum incolumis transire potest, simulacra renutant; perscinduntur enim, nisi recta foramina tranant, qualia sunt vitrei, species qua travolat omnis.

Munro: Again, a voice distributes itself in all directions, since voices are begotten one out of another, when a single voice has once gone forth and sprung into many, as a spark of fire is often wont to distribute itself into its constituent fires. Therefore places are filled with voices which though far withdrawn out of view yet are all in commotion and stirred by sound. But idols all proceed in straight courses as soon as they have been discharged; and therefore you can never see beyond a wall, but you may hear voices outside it. And yet this very voice even in passing through the walls of houses is blunted and enters the ears in a huddled state, and we seem to hear the sound rather than the actual words.

Dunster: Besides, the voice divides itself into several little voices, and these are broken again into others, as soon as the first single voice breaks into many more, like a spark of fire that leaps abroad into a thousand; so that all places about, even those behind you, are filled with voice, and are moved by the sound; but all images direct their course through straight passages as soon as they are thrown off from bodies, and therefore no one can see anything over his head; you hear words that are spoken without, yet even these, as they pass through the doors that are shut, grow weak, and strike the ear in a confused manner, so that we seem to hear a sound than to distinguish the words.

Latin: Praeterea partis in cunctas dividitur vox, ex aliis aliae quoniam gignuntur, ubi una dissuluit semel in multas exorta, quasi ignis saepe solet scintilla suos se spargere in ignis. ergo replentur loca vocibus abdita retro, omnia quae circum fervunt sonituque cientur. at simulacra viis derectis omnia tendunt, ut sunt missa semel; qua propter cernere nemo saepe supra potis est, at voces accipere extra. et tamen ipsa quoque haec, dum transit clausa [domorum> vox optunditur atque auris confusa penetrat et sonitum potius quam verba audire videmur.

Munro: The tongue and palate whereby we perceive flavor, have not in them anything that calls for longer explanation or offers more difficulty.

Dunster: Nor is the account of the tongue and palate, by which we taste, a subject of greater nicety or more difficult to explain.

Latin: Hoc, qui sentimus sucum, lingua atque palatum plusculum habent in se rationis, plus operai.

Munro: In the first place we perceive flavor in the mouth when we press it out in chewing our food, in the same way as when one haply begins to squeeze with his hand and dry a sponge full of water. Next the whole of what we press out distributes itself through the cavities of the palate and the intricate openings of the porous tongue. Therefore when the bodies of oozing flavor are smooth, they pleasantly touch and pleasantly feel all the parts if about the moist exuding quarters of the palate. But on the other hand, when they rise in a mass they puncture and tear the sense according to the degree in which they are pervaded by roughness.

Dunster: And first, we perceive a taste in the mouth when we squeeze the juice from our food by chewing, as if we were to press a sponge full of water in our hands to make it dry; then the juice we draw out is spread over the pores of the palate, and through the crooked passages of the spongy tongue. When the seeds of this flowing juice are smooth, they gently touch, and affect all the moist and sweating surface of the tongue with sweet delight; but the seeds, the more rough and sharp they are, the more they stimulate and tear the sense.

Latin: Principio sucum sentimus in ore, cibum cum mandendo exprimimus, ceu plenam spongiam aquai siquis forte manu premere ac siccare coëpit. inde quod exprimimus per caulas omne palati diditur et rarae per flexa foramina linguae, hoc ubi levia sunt manantis corpora suci, suaviter attingunt et suaviter omnia tractant umida linguai circum sudantia templa; at contra pungunt sensum lacerantque coorta, quanto quaeque magis sunt asperitate repleta.

Munro: Next the pleasure from the flavor reaches as far as the palate; when however it has passed down through the throat, there is no pleasure while it is all distributing itself into the frame. And it makes no matter what the food is with which the body is nurtured, provided you can digest what you take and transmit it into the frame and keep the stomach in an equable condition of moistness.

Dunster: And then the pleasure of taste we feel no further than the palate; when the food is driven down through the jaws and divided among the limbs, the pleasure is gone; nor is it of any concern with what meat our bodies are nourished, if you can but digest what you eat, and separate it among the members, and preserve the moist tenor of the stomach.

Latin: Deinde voluptas est e suco fine palati; cum vero deorsum per fauces praecipitavit, nulla voluptas est, dum diditur omnis in artus; nec refert quicquam quo victu corpus alatur, dum modo quod capias concoctum didere possis artubus et stomachi tumidum servare tenorem.

Munro: I will now explain how it is that different food is pleasant and nutritious for different creatures; also why that which to some is nauseous and bitter, may yet to others seem passing sweet; and why in these matters the difference and discrepancy is so great that what to one man is food, to another is rank poison; and there is actually a serpent which on being touched by a man’s spittle wastes away and destroys itself by gnawing its body. Again hellebore for us is rank poison, but helps to fatten goats and quails.

Dunster: I shall now account why, as we find, different sorts of food are agreeable to different palates; or why, what is sour and bitter to some seems to others exceeding sweet. In these cases the variety and difference are so great that what is food to one will prove sharp poison to another; and it happens that a serpent touched with the spittle of a man expires and bites himself to death. Besides, to us Hellebore is strong poison, but goats it fattens, and is nourishment to quails; and to understand by what means this comes to pass, you must recollect what we observed before, that seeds of different kinds are mingled in the composition of all bodies.

Latin: Nunc aliis alius qui sit cibus ut videamus, expediam, quareve, aliis quod triste et amarumst, hoc tamen esse aliis possit perdulce videri, tantaque [in] his rebus distantia differitasque est, ut quod aliis cibus est aliis fuat acre venenum; est itaque ut serpens, hominis quae tacta salivis disperit ac sese mandendo conficit ipsa. praeterea nobis veratrum est acre venenum, at capris adipes et cocturnicibus auget.

Munro: That you may know how this comes to pass, first of all you must remember what we have said before, that the seeds which are contained in things are mixed up in manifold ways. Again all living creatures soever which take food, even as they are unlike on the outside, and, differing in each after its kind, an exterior contour of limbs bounds them, so likewise are they formed of seeds of varying shape. Again since the seeds differ, there must be a discrepancy in the spaces between and the passages, which we name openings, in all the limbs and mouth and palate as well. Some openings therefore must be smaller, some larger; some things must have them three-cornered, others square; many must be round, some many-angled after many fashions. For as the relation between the shapes of seeds and their motions require, the openings also must differ accordingly in their shapes; and the passages must vary, as varies the texture formed by the seeds which bound them. For this reason when that which is sweet to some becomes bitter to others, for that creature to whom it is sweet the smoothest bodies must enter the cavities of the palate with power to feel them all over; but on the other hand in the case of those to whom the same thing is bitter within, rough and barbed seeds sure enough pass down the throat.

Dunster: And then all animals supported by food, as they differ in outward shape, and after their several kinds have a different form of body and limbs, so they consist of seeds of different figures, and since their seeds differ, the pores and passages which (as we said) were in all the parts, and in the mouth and palate itself, must differ likewise; some must be less, some greater, some with three, some with four squares; many round, and some with many corners in various manners: For as the frame of the seeds and their motions require, the pores must differ in their figure. The difference of the pores depends upon the texture of the seeds, and therefore what is sweet to one is bitter to another: It is sweet because the smoothest seeds gently enter into the pores of the palate; but the same food is bitter to another because the sharp and hooked particles pierce the jaws and wound the sense.

Latin: Id quibus ut fiat rebus cognoscere possis, principio meminisse decet quae diximus ante, semina multimodis in rebus mixta teneri. porro omnes quae cumque cibum capiunt animantes, ut sunt dissimiles extrinsecus et generatim extima membrorum circumcaesura coërcet, proinde et seminibus constant variantque figura. semina cum porro distent, differre necessest intervalla viasque, foramina quae perhibemus, omnibus in membris et in ore ipsoque palato. esse minora igitur quaedam maioraque debent, esse triquetra aliis, aliis quadrata necessest, multa rutunda, modis multis multangula quaedam. namque figurarum ratio ut motusque reposcunt, proinde foraminibus debent differe figurae et variare viae proinde ac textura coërcet. hoc ubi quod suave est aliis aliis fit amarum, illi, cui suave est, levissima corpora debent contractabiliter caulas intrare palati, at contra quibus est eadem res intus acerba, aspera ni mirum penetrant hamataque fauces.

Munro: It is easy now from these principles to understand all particular cases: thus when a fever has attacked any one from too great a flow of bile, or a violent disease has been excited in any other way, thereupon the whole body is disordered and all the arrangements of particles then and there changed; the consequence of which is that the bodies which before were suited to excite sensation, suit no more; and those fit it better, which are able to make their way in and beget a bitter sense. Both kinds for instance are mixed up in the flavor of honey: a point we have often proved before.

Dunster: Now by observing this things will appear plan, for when a man has a fever, either by the overflowing of the gall, or whether the violence of the disease be raised by any other means, in such a case the body is disturbed, and all the order and disposition of the seeds are changed. And hence it is that the juices that were before agreeable to the sense are no longer pleasing, and those are more fit to enter the pores that fret and produce a bitter taste; for even in honey there is a mixture of rough and smooth seeds, as we had frequent occasion to mention to you before.

Latin: Nunc facile est ex his rebus cognoscere quaeque. quippe ubi cui febris bili superante coorta est aut alia ratione aliquast vis excita morbi, perturbatur ibi iam totum corpus et omnes commutantur ibi positurae principiorum; fit prius ad sensum [ut] quae corpora conveniebant nunc non conveniant, et cetera sint magis apta, quae penetrata queunt sensum progignere acerbum; utraque enim sunt in mellis commixta sapore; id quod iam supera tibi saepe ostendimus ante.

Munro: Now mark me, and I will discuss the way in which the contact of smell affects the nostrils: and first there must be many things from which a varied flow of smells streams and rolls on; and we must suppose that they thus stream and discharge and disperse themselves among all things alike; but one smell fits itself better to one creature, another to another on account of their unlike shapes; and therefore bees are drawn on by the smell of honey through the air to a very great distance, and so are vultures by carcases. Also the onward-reaching power of scent in dogs leads them whithersoever the cloven hoof of wild beasts has carried them in their course; and the smell of man is felt far away by the savior of the Romans’ citadel, the bright white goose. Thus different scents assigned to different creatures led each to its appropriate food and constrain them to recoil from nauseous poison, and in this way the races of beasts are preserved.

Dunster: And now shall I pass on and show in what manner the approach of smells affect the nose. And first, a various stream of odors is continuously flowing from all bodies; for you must suppose that smells are perpetually thrown off, are emitted and dispersed abroad; but some are more peculiar to some animals than others, because they consist of seeds of different figures; and therefore the bee is attracted by the smell of honey in the air afar off, and vultures by the stink of carcases; and so the natural quality of the hound drives him on where the hoof of the stag has led the way, and the white goose (the savior of the capitol) can perceive the smell of a man at a great distance. So it is the difference of smell, peculiar to different creatures, that directs every species to its proper food, and makes it start at the approach of poison; and by that means the race of beasts is constantly preserved.

Latin: Nunc age, quo pacto naris adiectus odoris tangat agam. primum res multas esse necessest unde fluens volvat varius se fluctus odorum, et fluere et mitti volgo spargique putandumst; verum aliis alius magis est animantibus aptus, dissimilis propter formas. ideoque per auras mellis apes quamvis longe ducuntur odore, volturiique cadaveribus; tum fissa ferarum ungula quo tulerit gressum promissa canum vis ducit, et humanum longe praesentit odorem Romulidarum arcis servator, candidus anser. sic aliis alius nidor datus ad sua quemque pabula ducit et a taetro resilire veneno cogit, eoque modo servantur saecla ferarum.

Munro: Of all these different smells then which strike the nostrils one may reach to a much greater distance than another; though none of them is carried so far as sound, as voice, to say nothing of things which strike the eyesight and provoke vision. For in its mazy course each comes slowly on and is sooner lost, being gradually dispersed into the readily receiving expanse of air; first because coming out of its depths it with difficulty discharges itself from the thing: for the fact that all things are found to have a stronger smell when crushed, when pounded, when broken up by fire, shows that odors stream and withdraw from the inner parts of things: next you may see that smell is formed of larger first-beginnings than voice, since it does not pass through stone walls, through which voice and sound are borne without fail. For this reason also you will find that it is not so easy to trace out in what quarter a thing which smells is situated; for the blow cools down as it loiters through the air, and the courier particles of things are no longer hot when they finish their race to sense; for which reason dogs are often at fault and lose the scent.

Dunster: But this smell or odor that affects the nose, some kinds of it are emitted much further than others, but no one of them is carried so far as sound or voice (not to speak of those images that strike the eye and provoke the sight) for they wander about and move lazily, and being scattered through the air, die away by degrees before they have gone far, and for this reason because they flow with difficulty from the most inward parts of bodies; and that odors are emitted from the lowest profundity of the subject is proved from this, that the more they are broken or scattered by fire, the stronger they smell. And then we may observe that smells are formed of larger seeds than those of voice; for they cannot pierce through walls of stone, where voice and sound can freely pass; and therefore we cannot so easily distinguish on which side of us the body is placed that diffuses the smell, for the stroke grows cold as it moves through the air, nor does the hot scent briskly touch the organ, and therefore hounds are often at fault and hunt about for the trail.

Latin: Hic odor ipse igitur, naris qui cumque lacessit, est alio ut possit permitti longius alter; sed tamen haud quisquam tam longe fertur eorum quam sonitus, quam vox, mitto iam dicere quam res quae feriunt oculorum acies visumque lacessunt. errabundus enim tarde venit ac perit ante paulatim facilis distractus in aëris auras; ex alto primum quia vix emittitur ex re; nam penitus fluere atque recedere rebus odores significat quod fracta magis redolere videntur omnia, quod contrita, quod igni conlabefacta. deinde videre licet maioribus esse creatum principiis quam vox, quoniam per saxea saepta non penetrat, qua vox volgo sonitusque feruntur. quare etiam quod olet non tam facile esse videbis investigare in qua sit regione locatum; refrigescit enim cunctando plaga per auras nec calida ad sensum decurrunt nuntia rerum. errant saepe canes itaque et vestigia quaerunt.

Munro: But what I have said is not found in smells and in the class of flavors only, but also the forms and colors of things are not all so well suited to the senses of all, but that some will be more distressing to the sight than others. Moreover ravenous lions cannot face and bear to gaze upon a cock with flapping wings putting night to rout and wont to summon morning with shrill voice: in such wise they at once bethink themselves of flight, because sure enough in the body of cocks are certain seeds, and these, when they have been discharged into the eyes of lions, bore into the pupils and cause such sharp pain that courageous though they be, they cannot continue to face them; while at the same time these things cannot hurt at all our sight, either because they do not enter in or because the moment they enter a free passage out of the eyes is granted them, so that they cannot by staying behind hurt the eyes in any part!

Dunster: And this happens not only in cases of smell and taste, but the images of things, and all colors, do not affect the eyes of men all alike, but to some they are more sharp and painful to the sense than they are to others. For the cock that claps his wings and drives away the darkness and by his clear notes calls forth the morning light, the fiercest lion dares not stand against this creature, nor look him in the face, but instantly prepares for flight; and for this reason, because there are certain seeds in the body of the cock that when emitted into the eyes of the lion fret and tear the balls, and cause a very acute pain, which the beast in all his courage is not able to bear; and yet these particles are in no way hurtful to our eyes; either they do not pierce them, or if they do, they find a free passage and return easily from the eyes again, so that they do not the least prejudice to the sight.

Latin: Nec tamen hoc solis in odoribus atque saporum in generest, sed item species rerum atque colores non ita conveniunt ad sensus omnibus omnes, ut non sint aliis quaedam magis acria visu. quin etiam gallum noctem explaudentibus alis auroram clara consuetum voce vocare, noenu queunt rapidi contra constare leones inque tueri: ita continuo meminere fugai. ni mirum quia sunt gallorum in corpore quaedam semina, quae cum sunt oculis inmissa leonum, pupillas interfodiunt acremque dolorem praebent, ut nequeant contra durare feroces, cum tamen haec nostras acies nil laedere possint, aut quia non penetrant aut quod penetrantibus illis exitus ex oculis liber datur, in remorando laedere ne possint ex ulla lumina parte.

Munro: Now mark, and hear what things move the mind, and learn in a few words whence the things which come into it do come.

Dunster: And now attend, and observe in short, what things affect the mind, and from whence proceed those objects that make an impression upon it.

Latin: Nunc age, quae moveant animum res accipe, et unde quae veniunt veniant in mentem percipe paucis.

Munro: I say first of all, that idols of things wander about many in number in many ways in all directions round, extremely thin; and these when they meet, readily unite, like a cobweb or piece of gold-leaf. For these idols are far thinner in texture than those which take possession of the eyes and provoke vision; since these enter in through the porous parts of the body and stir the fine nature of the mind within and provoke sensation.

Dunster: First then, I say that subtle images of things, a numerous train of them, wander about in every way and in various manners. These, as they meet, easily twine and are joined together in the air, as threads of gold or the web of a spider; for these are much finer in their contexture than those images that strike the eye and move the sight. These pierce through the pores of the body and move the subtle nature of the mind within, and affect the sense.

Latin: Principio hoc dico, rerum simulacra vagari multa modis multis in cunctas undique partis tenvia, quae facile inter se iunguntur in auris, obvia cum veniunt, ut aranea bratteaque auri. quippe etenim multo magis haec sunt tenvia textu quam quae percipiunt oculos visumque lacessunt, corporis haec quoniam penetrant per rara cientque tenvem animi naturam intus sensumque lacessunt.

Munro: Therefore we see Centaurs and limbs of Scyllas and Cerberus-like faces of dogs and idols of those who are dead, whose bones earth holds in its embrace; since idols of every kind are everywhere borne about, partly those which are spontaneously produced within the air, partly all those which withdraw from various things and those which are formed by compounding the shapes of these. For assuredly no image of Centaur is formed out of a live one, since no such nature of living creature ever existed; but when images of a horse and a man have by chance come together, they readily adhere at once, as we said before, on account of their fine nature and thin texture. All other things of the kind are produced in like fashion. And when these from extreme lightness are borne on with velocity, as I showed before, any one subtle composite image you like readily moves the mind by a single stroke; for the mind is fine and is itself wondrously nimble.

Dunster: Hence it is that we see Centaurs, and the limbs of Scylla’s, and the heads of Cerberus, and the shadows of those who have long since been dead, and whose bones are rotting in the grave; because images of all kinds are ever wandering about; some of their own accord are formed in the air, some are continually flying off from various bodies, and others rise from these images mixed together. For it is certain that the image of a Centaur never flowed from one that was alive; for there was never such an animal in nature, but when the image of a horse met by chance with the image of a man, it immediately stuck to it, which it easily does, by reason of the subtlety of its nature and the fineness of its texture; and all other monstrous figures are formed after the same manner. These images being exceeding light, and easily put in motion (as I observed before) each of them affects the mind at one stroke; for the mind is of a very subtle nature, and wonderfully disposed to move.

Latin: Centauros itaque et Scyllarum membra videmus Cerbereasque canum facies simulacraque eorum quorum morte obita tellus amplectitur ossa; omnigenus quoniam passim simulacra feruntur, partim sponte sua quae fiunt aëre in ipso, partim quae variis ab rebus cumque recedunt et quae confiunt ex horum facta figuris. nam certe ex vivo Centauri non fit imago, nulla fuit quoniam talis natura animata; verum ubi equi atque hominis casu convenit imago, haerescit facile extemplo, quod diximus ante, propter subtilem naturam et tenvia texta. cetera de genere hoc eadem ratione creantur. quae cum mobiliter summa levitate feruntur, ut prius ostendi, facile uno commovet ictu quae libet una animum nobis subtilis imago; tenvis enim mens est et mire mobilis ipsa.

Munro: That all this is done as I relate you may easily learn from what follows. So far as the one is like another, seeing with the mind and seeing with the eyes must be produced in a like way.

Dunster: That the mind is moved, as I observed, by the images of things, you may easily collect from hence, that what we perceive by the mind is exactly like what we see with our eyes, and therefore they must of necessity be both affected by the same things, and in the same manner.

Latin: Haec fieri ut memoro, facile hinc cognoscere possis. quatinus hoc simile est illi, quod mente videmus atque oculis, simili fieri ratione necessest.

Munro: Well then since I have shown that I perceive for instance a lion by means of idols which provoke the eyes, you may be sure that the mind is moved in a like way, which by means of idols sees a lion or anything else just as well as the eyes, with this difference that it perceives much thinner idols.

Dunster: And so, when I said, for instance, that I see a lion by means of the image that strikes upon the eyes, I know by the same rule that the mind is moved by another image of a lion, which it equally and no less sees, than the eye sees the image proper to it; with this difference only, that the mind can perceive images of a more thin and subtle nature.

Latin: Nunc igitur docui quoniam me forte leonum cernere per simulacra, oculos quae cumque lacessunt, scire licet mentem simili ratione moveri per simulacra leonum [et] cetera quae videt aeque nec minus atque oculi, nisi quod mage tenvia cernit.

Munro: And when sleep has prostrated the body, for no other reason does the mind’s intelligence wake, except because the very same idols provoke our minds which provoke them when we are awake, and to such a degree that we seem without a doubt to perceive him whom life has left and death and earth gotten hold of. This nature constrains to come to pass because all the senses of the body are then hampered and at rest throughout the limbs and cannot refute the unreal by real things. Moreover memory is prostrate and relaxed in sleep and protests not that he has long been in the grasp of death and destruction whom the mind believes it sees alive.

Dunster: Nor from any other reason is the mind awake when the body is asleep, but because those very images affect the mind which were used to move the sense when we were awake, so that we fully believe we see a person who has been long since dead and buried in the grave; and it cannot well be otherwise, because all the senses of the body are obstructed and bound up by sleep, and therefore have no power to convince us of the contrary. Besides, the memory is feeble and languishes by rest, and makes no objection to satisfy us, that the man has been long in the arms of death, whom the mind really believes it sees alive.

Latin: Nec ratione alia, cum somnus membra profudit, mens animi vigilat, nisi quod simulacra lacessunt haec eadem nostros animos quae cum vigilamus, usque adeo, certe ut videamur cernere eum quem rellicta vita iam mors et terra potitast. hoc ideo fieri cogit natura, quod omnes corporis offecti sensus per membra quiescunt nec possunt falsum veris convincere rebus. praeterea meminisse iacet languetque sopore, nec dissentit eum mortis letique potitum iam pridem, quem mens vivom se cernere credit.

Munro: Furthermore it is not strange that idols move and throw about their arms and other limbs in regular measure: for sometimes in sleep an image is seen to do this: when the first to wit has gone and a second then been born in another posture, that former one seems to have altered its attitude. This remember you must assume to take place with exceeding celerity: so great is the velocity, so great the store of things; so great in any one unit of time that sense can seize is the store of particles, out of which the supply may go on.

Dunster: And then it is no wonder that the images seem to move, and to throw their arms and the rest of their limbs to exact time, and thus they seem to do when we are in a dream, for when the first image is gone, and another springs up in a different posture, the first, we think, has changed its shape; and all this, you must conceive, is done in an instant of time.

Latin: Quod super est, non est mirum simulacra moveri bracchiaque in numerum iactare et cetera membra; nam fit ut in somnis facere hoc videatur imago. quippe, ubi prima perit alioque est altera nata inde statu, prior hic gestum mutasse videtur. scilicet id fieri celeri ratione putandumst: tanta est mobilitas et rerum copia tanta tantaque sensibili quovis est tempore in uno copia particularum, ut possit suppeditare.

Munro: And here many questions present themselves and many points must be cleared up by us, if we desire to give a plain exposition of things.

Dunster: There are many other inquiries about things of this nature and we must enter into long disputes if we attempt to give a distinct answer to every one.

Latin: Multaque in his rebus quaeruntur multaque nobis clarandumst, plane si res exponere avemus.

Munro: The first question is why, when the wish has occurred to any one to think of a thing, his mind on the instant thinks of that very thing. Do idols observe our will, and so soon as we will does an image present itself to us, if sea, if earth, ay or heaven is what we wish? Assemblies of men, a procession, feasts, battles, everything in short does nature at command produce and provide? And though to increase the marvel the mind of others in the same spot and room is thinking of things all quite different.

Dunster: First then, it is asked, How is it that whatever we desire to think of the mind immediately thinks upon that very thing? Is it that the images are always ready at the command of the will? Does the image immediately occur to us the moment we desire? If we fancy to think of the sea, the earth, the heavens, of senates, shows, feasts, battles, does nature form these and provide them ready at our nod? Especially since the minds of others, that are in the same country and in the same place with us, think things quite different from these?

Latin: Quaeritur in primis quare, quod cuique libido venerit, extemplo mens cogitet eius id ipsum. anne voluntatem nostram simulacra tuentur et simul ac volumus nobis occurrit imago, si mare, si terram cordist, si denique caelum? conventus hominum, pompam, convivia, pugnas, omnia sub verbone creat natura paratque? cum praesertim aliis eadem in regione locoque longe dissimilis animus res cogitet omnis.

Munro: What again are we to say, when we see in sleep idols advance in measured tread and move their pliant limbs, when in nimble wise they put out each pliant arm in turn and represent to the eyes over and over again an action with foot that moves in time? Idols to wit are imbued with art and move about well-trained, to be able in the night-time to exhibit such plays.

Dunster: And then, since we see images in our sleep to step to time, to move their pliant limbs, and throw about their tender arms alternately, and keep due measure with their feet, are they taught this by Art? Have they learnt to dance, that thus they play their wanton sports by night?

Latin: Quid porro, in numerum procedere cum simulacra cernimus in somnis et mollia membra movere, mollia mobiliter cum alternis bracchia mittunt et repetunt oculis gestum pede convenienti? scilicet arte madent simulacra et docta vagantur, nocturno facere ut possint in tempore ludos.

Munro: Or will this rather be the truth? Because in one unit of time, when we can perceive it by sense and while one single word is uttered, many latent times are contained which reason finds to exist, therefore in any time you please all the several idols are at hand ready prepared in each several place. And because they are so thin, the mind can see distinctly only those which it strains itself to see; therefore all that there are besides are lost, save only those for which it has made itself ready. Moreover, it makes itself ready and hopes to see that which follows upon each thing; therefore the result does follow. Do you not see that the eyes also, when they essay to discern things which are thin and fine, strain themselves and make themselves ready, and without that we cannot see distinctly? And yet you may observe even in things which are plain before us, that if you do not attend, it is just as if the thing were all the time away and far distant? What wonder then, if the mind loses all other things save those with which it is itself earnestly occupied? Then too from small indications we draw the widest inferences and by our own fault entangle ourselves in the meshes of self-delusion.

Dunster: Is not this the truth rather, that what we take for one moment of time, this present Now, has many parts included, as we find by reason? And therefore it is that in every instant there are a thousand different images always ready in every place, so numerous are they, and so apt to move; and then they are so exceeding subtle, that the mind cannot possibly perceive them distinctly, without the nicest diligence. And so those images die away unobserved, which the mind does not apply itself to receive, but it does apply itself closely to distinguish the image it hopes to find, and therefore sees it. Don’t you observe that the eyes, when they would discover an object exceeding small, contract themselves close and provide for it, nor can they accurately distinguish, except they do so? And you will find, even in things ever so plain, unless you strictly apply your mind, they will be as if they were utterly obscure, and at the greatest distance undiscovered. Where is the wonder then that the mind should lose the observation of all other images but those it particularly inquires after and is employed about? Besides, we often mistake small objects for great, and so we contribute to our own delusion and impose upon ourselves.

Latin: An magis illud erit verum? quia tempore in uno, cum sentimus, id est cum vox emittitur una, tempora multa latent, ratio quae comperit esse, propterea fit uti quovis in tempore quaeque praesto sint simulacra locis in quisque parata. tanta est mobilitas et rerum copia tanta. hoc ubi prima perit alioque est altera nata inde statu, prior hic gestum mutasse videtur. et quia tenvia sunt, nisi quae contendit, acute cernere non potis est animus; proinde omnia quae sunt praeterea pereunt, nisi quae ex se[se] ipse paravit. ipse parat sese porro speratque futurum ut videat quod consequitur rem quamque: fit ergo. nonne vides oculos etiam, cum tenvia quae sunt [praeterea pereunt, nisi quae ex se ipse paravit] cernere coeperunt, contendere se atque parare, nec sine eo fieri posse ut cernamus acute? et tamen in rebus quoque apertis noscere possis, si non advertas animum, proinde esse quasi omni tempore semotum fuerit longeque remotum. cur igitur mirumst, animus si cetera perdit praeter quam quibus est in rebus deditus ipse? deinde adopinamur de signis maxima parvis ac nos in fraudem induimus frustraminis ipsi.

Munro: Sometimes it happens too that an image of the same kind is not supplied, but what before was a woman, turns out in our hands to have changed into a man; or a different face and age succeed to the first. But sleep and forgetfulness prevent us from feeling surprise at this.

Dunster: It happens likewise that sometimes an image of a different kind presents itself to the mind. Thus the form that was before a woman now shows itself a man, or some other person of a different age and complexion, but this we are not to wonder at, since the senses are all asleep, and we are wholly in a state of forgetfulness.

Latin: Fit quoque ut inter dum non suppeditetur imago eiusdem generis, sed femina quae fuit ante, in manibus vir uti factus videatur adesse, aut alia ex alia facies aetasque sequatur. quod ne miremur sopor atque oblivia curant.

Munro: And herein you should desire with all your might to shun the weakness, with a lively apprehension to avoid the mistake of supposing that the bright lights of the eyes were made in order that we might see; and that the tapering ends of the shanks and hams are attached to the feet as a base in order to enable us to step out with long strides; or again that the forearms were slung to the stout upper arms and ministering hands given us on each side, that we might be able to discharge the needful duties of life. Other explanations of like sort which men give, one and all put effect for cause through wrongheaded reasoning; since nothing was born in the body that we might use it, but that which is born begets itself a use: thus seeing did not exist before the eyes were born, nor the employment of speech ere the tongue was made; but rather the birth of the tongue was long anterior to language and the ears were made long before sound was heard, and all the limbs, I trow, existed before there was any employment for them: they could not therefore have grown for the purpose of being used.

Dunster: But in subjects of this nature, guard yourself to the utmost of your power against that error, that gross mistake, and never believe that those bright orbs, the eyes, were made that we might see; of that our legs were made upright, and things fixed upon them, and were supported by feet, that we might walk and take large strides; that our arms were braced with strong sinews, and that our hands hung on both sides, to assist us in those offices that are necessary to the support of life. And whatever constructions they put upon other parts of the body, they are all absurd and against reason; for no member of the body was made for any particular use, but after it was made each member found out a use proper to itself; for there was no such thing as to see before the eyes were made, nor to speak before the tongue was formed, but the tongue was rather in being before there was speech, and the ears were made long before any sound was heard. In short, all the members, in my opinion, were in being before their particular uses were set out.

Latin: Illud in his rebus vitium vehementer Äinesse effugere errorem vitareque praemetuenter, lumina ne facias oculorum clara creata, prospicere ut possimus, et ut proferre queamus proceros passus, ideo fastigia posse surarum ac feminum pedibus fundata plicari, bracchia tum porro validis ex apta lacertis esse manusque datas utraque [ex] parte ministras, ut facere ad vitam possemus quae foret usus. cetera de genere hoc inter quae cumque pretantur, omnia perversa praepostera sunt ratione, nil ideo quoniam natumst in corpore ut uti possemus, sed quod natumst id procreat usum. nec fuit ante videre oculorum lumina nata, nec dictis orare prius quam lingua creatast, sed potius longe linguae praecessit origo sermonem multoque creatae sunt prius aures quam sonus est auditus, et omnia denique membra ante fuere, ut opinor, eorum quam foret usus; haud igitur potuere utendi crescere causa.

Munro: But on the other hand, engaging in the strife of battle and mangling the body and staining the limbs with gore were in vogue long before glittering darts ever flew; and nature prompted to shun a wound or ever the left arm by the help of art held up before the person the defense of a shield. Yes, and consigning the tired body to rest is much older than a soft-cushioned bed, and the slaking of thirst had birth before cups. These things therefore which have been invented in accordance with the uses and wants of life, may well be believed to have been discovered for the purpose of being used. Far otherwise is it with all those things which first were born, then afterwards made known the purposes to which they might be put; at the head of which class we see the senses and the limbs. Wherefore again and again I repeat, it is quite impossible to believe that they could have been made for the duties which they discharge.

Dunster: This is so true that, to engage in battle, to mangle the limbs, and to stain the body over with blood, these were in being before any shining darts flew through the air, and nature taught us to avoid a wound before the left hand learnt to oppose a shield in our defense; and so, to commit the body to rest was long before the invention of soft beds, and to quench the thirst was practiced before the use of cups. All these things, we may believe, were invented for common benefit, as they were found proper and convenient for the occasions of life. All things therefore that were in being before the use of them was determined applied themselves afterwards to the office that was most suitable and serviceable to them. Of this kind principally are the senses and members of our bodies, and therefore you are to avoid, upon all accounts, so much as to think that they were at first formed for any particular design or use.

Latin: At contra conferre manu certamina pugnae et lacerare artus foedareque membra cruore ante fuit multo quam lucida tela volarent, et volnus vitare prius natura coëgit quam daret obiectum parmai laeva per artem. scilicet et fessum corpus mandare quieti multo antiquius est quam lecti mollia strata, et sedare sitim prius est quam pocula natum. haec igitur possunt utendi cognita causa credier, ex usu quae sunt vitaque reperta. illa quidem seorsum sunt omnia, quae prius ipsa nata dedere suae post notitiam utilitatis. quo genere in primis sensus et membra videmus; quare etiam atque etiam procul est ut credere possis utilitatis ob officium potuisse creari.

Munro: It ought likewise to cause no wonder that the nature of the body of each living creature absolutely requires food I have shown that bodies ebb away and withdraw from things, many in number in many ways; but most numerous must be those which withdraw from living things; for because these are tried by active motion, and many particles are pressed out from the depths of the frame and carried off by sweating, many breathed out through the mouth, when they pant from exhaustion, from such causes the body becomes rarefied and the whole nature undermined; and this state is attended by pain. Food therefore is taken in order to give support to the frame and recruit the strength by its infusion, and to close up the open-mouthed craving for meat throughout limbs and veins. The moisture too passes into all the parts which call for moisture; and many accumulated bodies of heat which cause a burning in our stomach, the approach of liquid scatters and quenches as if they were fire, so that dry heat can no longer parch the frame. In this way then you see gasping thirst is drenched out of our body, in this way the hungry craving is satisfied.

Dunster: Nor is it wonderful at all that it is the nature of every animal to require meat; for I have told you that a train of effluvia are ever flowing from all bodies, in various manners, but most are discharged from those animals that are most used to motion; many particles forced from within are carried off by sweat, and many exhale through the mouth, when we are fatigued and pant for breath. The body, therefore, by these discharges becomes rarefied, and all nature is falling to pieces, which is attended with great pain. Food therefore is taken to prop up the limbs, and being given from time to time, it renews the strength, and satisfies that gaping desire of eating through the limbs and veins. The cooling drink likewise descends into all the parts that require moisture, and the flowing liquor scatters all that heap of hot particles that set our stomach in a flame, and extinguishes them as fire, so that the heat has no longer power to scorch our bowels, and thus is panting thirst washed away from our bodies, thus our craving hunger is satisfied.

Latin: Illud item non est mirandum, corporis ipsa quod natura cibum quaerit cuiusque animantis. quippe etenim fluere atque recedere corpora rebus multa modis multis docui, sed plurima debent ex animalibus; [quae] quia sunt exercita motu, multa per os exhalantur, cum languida anhelant, multaque per sudorem ex alto pressa feruntur. his igitur rebus rarescit corpus et omnis subruitur natura, dolor quam consequitur rem. propterea capitur cibus, ut suffulciat artus et recreet vires inter datus, atque patentem per membra ac venas ut amorem opturet edendi. umor item discedit in omnia quae loca cumque poscunt umorem; glomerataque multa vaporis corpora, quae stomacho praebent incendia nostro, dissupat adveniens liquor ac restinguit ut ignem, urere ne possit calor amplius aridus artus. sic igitur tibi anhela sitis de corpore nostro abluitur, sic expletur ieiuna cupido.

Munro: Now how it comes to pass that we are able to step out when we please, and how it is given us to move about our limbs, and what cause is wont to push forward the great load of this our body I will tell: do you take in my words. I say that idols of walking first present themselves to our mind and strike on the mind, as we said before: then the will arises; for no one begins to do anything, until his mind has first determined what it wills. From the very fact that it determines such thing, there is an image of that thing. When therefore the mind bestirs itself in such a way as to will to walk and step out, it strikes at the same moment the force of the soul which is spread over the whole body throughout the limbs and frame; and this is easily done, since the whole is held in close union with the mind. Next the soul in its turn strikes the body, and thus the whole mass by degrees is pushed on and set in motion. Then again, the body becomes also rarefied, and the air, as you see its nature is, being always so nimble in moving, comes and passes in great quantity through the opened pores and is thus distributed into the most minute parts of the body. In this way then by these two causes acting in two ways the body like a ship is carried on by sails and wind.

Dunster: And now attend, and you shall know how it is that we are able to walk when we will, that we have a power to move our limbs as we please, and what it is that thrusts the body forward with all its weight. I say then, that the images of motion first affect and strike the mind, as we observed before. This makes the Will, for we never attempt to do any thing before the mind knows what it is we desire to do, and the image of that thing which occurs to the mind must be present before it. And thus the mind, having moved itself so as to resolve to go forward, strikes immediately upon the soul, which is diffused through the whole body, and this is easily done, because they are both closely joined together. The soul then strikes the body, and so the whole bulk by degrees is thrust forward and put into motion. Besides, the body by this means is rarefied, and the air, which is ever disposed to move, enters the open passages, and pierces through the pores in great abundance, and so is dispersed through every minute part of the body. By these two therefore (by the soul laboring within, and by the air entering from without) the body is moved, as a ship is by oars and wind.

Latin: Nunc qui fiat uti passus proferre queamus, cum volumus, quareque datum sit membra movere et quae res tantum hoc oneris protrudere nostri corporis insuerit, dicam: tu percipe dicta. dico animo nostro primum simulacra meandi accidere atque animum pulsare, ut diximus ante. inde voluntas fit; neque enim facere incipit ullam rem quisquam, [quam] mens providit quid velit ante. id quod providet, illius rei constat imago, ergo animus cum sese ita commovet ut velit ire inque gredi, ferit extemplo quae in corpore toto per membra atque artus animai dissita vis est; et facilest factu, quoniam coniuncta tenetur. inde ea proporro corpus ferit, atque ita tota paulatim moles protruditur atque movetur. praeterea tum rarescit quoque corpus et aër, scilicet ut debet qui semper mobilis extat, per patefacta venit penetratque foramina largus, et dispargitur ad partis ita quasque minutas corporis. hic igitur rebus fit utrimque duabus, corpus ut ac navis velis ventoque feratur.

Munro: And herein it need not excite any surprise that such very minute bodies can steer so great a body and turn about the whole of this our load; for wind though fine with subtle body drives and pushes on a large ship of large moving mass and one hand directs it however great the speed at which it is going and one rudder steers it to any point you like; and by means of blocks of pulleys and tread-wheels a machine stirs many things of great weight and raises them up with slight effort.

Dunster: Nor is this at all strange, that particles so very small should turn about the bulk of our bodies, and move so great a weight; for the driving wind, formed of so fine and subtle seeds, thrust forward a large ship with mighty force, and one hand can govern it under full sail, by turning one little helm which way it pleases; and an engine with small labor is able, by pulleys and wheels, to move many bodies of a great weight.

Latin: Nec tamen illud in his rebus mirabile constat, tantula quod tantum corpus corpuscula possunt contorquere et onus totum convertere nostrum; quippe etenim ventus subtili corpore tenvis trudit agens magnam magno molimine navem et manus una regit quanto vis impete euntem atque gubernaclum contorquet quo libet unum, multaque per trocleas et tympana pondere magno commovet atque levi sustollit machina nisu.

Munro: Now by what means yon sleep lets a stream of repose over the limbs and dispels from the breast the cares of the mind, I will tell in sweetly worded rather than in many verses; as the short song of the swan is better than the loud noise of cranes scattered abroad amid the ethereal clouds of the south. Do you lend me a nice ear and a keen mind, that you may not deny what I say to be possible and secede with breast disdainfully rejecting the words of truth, you yourself being in fault the while and unable to discern.

Dunster: Next, how soft sleep dissolves the limbs in rest, and frees the mind from anxious care, I choose in few but sweetest numbers to explain; as the swan’s short song is more melodious than the harsh noise of cranes scattered by winds through all the air. Hear me, my Memmius, with attentive ears and a discerning mind, lest what I shall prove, you think impossible to be; and so your mind refusing to admit the truth I shall relate, you make no progress in philosophy, when the fault is in yourself, that you will not see.

Latin: Nunc quibus ille modis somnus per membra quietem inriget atque animi curas e pectore solvat, suavidicis potius quom multis versibus edam, parvus ut est cycni melior canor, ille gruum quam clamor in aetheriis dispersus nubibus austri. tu mihi da tenuis auris animumque sagacem, ne fieri negites quae dicam posse retroque vera repulsanti discedas pectore dicta, tutemet in culpa cum sis neque cernere possis.

Munro: Sleep mainly takes place when the force of the soul has been scattered about through the frame, and in part has been forced abroad and taken its departure, and in part has been thrust back and has withdrawn into the depths of the body: after that the limbs are relaxed and droop. For there is no doubt that this sense exists in us by the agency of the soul; and when sleep obstructs the action of this sense, then we must assume that our soul has been disordered and forced abroad; not indeed all; for then the body would lie steeped in the everlasting chill of death. Where no part of the soul remained behind concealed in the limbs, as fire remains concealed when buried under much ash, whence could sense be suddenly rekindled through the limbs, as flame can spring up from hidden fire?

Dunster: And first, sleep comes on when the power of the soul, diffused through the limbs, part of it is thrown out and fled abroad, and part being squeezed more close retires further within; then are the limbs dissolved and grow weak. For without doubt the business of the soul is to stir up sense in us, which since sleep removes, we must conclude that the soul then is disturbed and driven abroad: Not the whole soul, for then the body would lie in the cold arms of eternal death; then no part of the soul would lie retired within the limbs, as a fire remains covered under a heap of ashes; from whence the senses might be kindled again through the body, as a flame is soon raised from hidden fire.

Latin: Principio somnus fit ubi est distracta per artus vis animae partimque foras eiecta recessit et partim contrusa magis concessit in altum; dissoluuntur enim tum demum membra fluuntque. nam dubium non est, animai quin opera sit sensus hic in nobis, quem cum sopor inpedit esse, tum nobis animam perturbatam esse putandumst eiectamque foras, non omnem; namque iaceret aeterno corpus perfusum frigore leti. quippe ubi nulla latens animai pars remaneret in membris, cinere ut multa latet obrutus ignis, unde reconflari sensus per membra repente possit, ut ex igni caeco consurgere flamma?

Munro: But by what means this change of condition is accomplished and from what the soul can be disordered and the body grow faint, I will explain: do you mind that I waste not my words on the wind.

Dunster: But by what means this wonderful change is brought about, how the soul is thus disordered and the body languishes, I shall now explain. Do you see that I do not scatter my words unto the wind.

Latin: Sed quibus haec rebus novitas confiat et unde perturbari anima et corpus languescere possit, expediam: tu fac ne ventis verba profundam.

Munro: In the first place the body in its outer side, since it is next to and is touched by the air, must be thumped and beaten by its repeated blows; and for this reason all things as a rule are covered either by a hide or else by shells or by a callous skin or by bark. When creatures breathe, this air at the same time buffets the inner side also, as it is inhaled and exhaled. Therefore since the body is beaten on both sides alike and blows arrive by means of the small apertures at the primal parts and primal elements of our body, there gradually ensues a sort of breaking up throughout our limbs, the arrangements of the first-beginnings of body and mind getting disordered. Then next a part of the soul is forced out and apart withdraws into the inner recesses; a part too scattered about through the frame cannot get united together and so act and be acted upon by motion; for nature intercepts all communication and blocks up all the passages; and therefore sense retires deep into the frame as the motions are all altered. And since there is nothing as it were to lend support to the frame, the body becomes weak and all the limbs are faint, the arms and eyelids droop and the hams even in bed often give way under you and relax their powers.

Dunster: And first, the outward surface of bodies which are always touched by the adjacent air, must of necessity be struck by it and beaten with frequent blows; and for this reason all things almost are covered either with skin, or bristles, or shells, or buff, or bark. This air then, as it is drawn in and breathed out by respiration, strikes upon the inward parts of the body. Since therefore the body is beat upon from within and without, and since the stokes pierce through the little pores into the seeds and first principles of it, this cause a kind of ruin and destruction through all the limbs; the situation of the seeds, both of the body and mind, are disordered, so that part of the soul is forced out, and part retires and lurks close within, and the part that is diffused through the limbs is so broken and divided, that the seeds cannot unite to perform their mutual operations, for nature stops up all the passages of communication between them, and therefore the regular motions being exceedingly changed, the sense is entirely gone. Since therefore there is not power sufficient to support the limbs, the body becomes weak; all the members languish; the arms, the eyelids fall, and the knees sink under the weight of the body.

Latin: Principio externa corpus de parte necessum est, aëriis quoniam vicinum tangitur auris, tundier atque eius crebro pulsarier ictu, proptereaque fere res omnes aut corio sunt aut etiam conchis aut callo aut cortice tectae. interiorem etiam partem spirantibus aër verberat hic idem, cum ducitur atque reflatur. quare utrimque secus cum corpus vapulet et cum perveniant plagae per parva foramina nobis corporis ad primas partis elementaque prima, fit quasi paulatim nobis per membra ruina. conturbantur enim positurae principiorum corporis atque animi. fit uti pars inde animai eliciatur et introrsum pars abdita cedat, pars etiam distracta per artus non queat esse coniuncta inter se neque motu mutua fungi; inter enim saepit coetus natura viasque. ergo sensus abit mutatis motibus alte. et quoniam non est quasi quod suffulciat artus, debile fit corpus languescuntque omnia membra, bracchia palpebraeque cadunt poplitesque cubanti saepe tamen summittuntur virisque resolvunt.

Munro: Then sleep follows on food, because food produces just the same effects as air, while it is distributed into all the veins; and that sleep is much the heaviest which you take when full or tired, because then the greatest number of bodies fall into disorder, bruised by much exertion. On the same principle the soul comes in part to be forced more deeply into the frame, and there is also a more copious emission of it abroad, and at the same time it is more divided and scattered in itself within you.

Dunster: Thus sleep follows when the belly is full, because food, when it is distributed through all the veins, has the same effect upon the soul as the air had; and that sleep is by much the soundest which you take when you are weary or full, because then more of the seeds being agitated and put into motion by the hard labour, mutually disturb and disorder one another. And for this reason the soul retires further within, and a greater part of it is thrown out, and the parts that remain within are the more separated and the further disjoined.

Latin: Deinde cibum sequitur somnus, quia, quae facit aër, haec eadem cibus, in venas dum diditur omnis, efficit. et multo sopor ille gravissimus exstat, quem satur aut lassus capias, quia plurima tum se corpora conturbant magno contusa labore. fit ratione eadem coniectus parte animai altior atque foras eiectus largior eius, et divisior inter se ac distractior intus.

Munro: And generally to whatever pursuit a man is closely tied down and strongly attached, on whatever subject we have previously much dwelt, the mind having been put to a more than usual strain in it, during sleep we for the most part fancy that we are engaged in the same; lawyers think they plead causes and draw up covenants of sale, generals that they fight and engage in battle, sailors that they wage and carry on war with the winds, we think we pursue our task and investigate the nature of things constantly and consign it when discovered to writings in our native tongue. So all other pursuits and arts are seen for the most part during sleep to occupy and mock the minds of men.

Dunster: And then the business we more particularly follow, the affairs we are chiefly employed in, and what our mind is principally delighted with when we are awake, the same we are commonly conversant about when we are asleep. The lawyer is pleading of causes and making of statutes, the soldier is fighting and engaging in battles, the sailor is warring against the winds; for myself, I am always searching into the nature of things, and writing my discoveries in Latin verse; and so, many other arts and employments are commonly the empty entertainments of the minds of men when they are asleep.

Latin: Et quo quisque fere studio devinctus adhaeret aut quibus in rebus multum sumus ante morati atque in ea ratione fuit contenta magis mens, in somnis eadem plerumque videmur obire: causidici causas agere et componere leges, induperatores pugnare ac proelia obire, nautae contractum cum ventis degere bellum, nos agere hoc autem et naturam quaerere rerum semper et inventam patriis exponere chartis. cetera sic studia atque artes plerumque videntur in somnis animos hominum frustrata tenere.

Munro: And whenever men have given during many days in succession undivided attention to games, we generally see that after they have ceased to perceive these with their senses, there yet remain passages open in the mind through which the same idols of things may enter. Thus for many days those same objects present themselves to the eyes, so that even when awake they see dancers as they think moving their pliant limbs, and receive into the ears the clear music of the harp and speaking strings, and behold the same spectators and at the same time the varied decorations of the stage in all their brilliancy.

Dunster: And they who spend their time in seeing plays for many days together, when those representations are no longer present to the waking senses, there still remain some open traces left in the mind, through which the images of those things find a passage, so that for many days after the whole performance is acting over again before their eyes; and even while they are awake they fancy they see the dancers leaping, and moving their active limbs, and hear the speaking strings; they see the same audience, the same variety of the scenes and decorations of the stage.

Latin: Et qui cumque dies multos ex ordine ludis adsiduas dederunt operas, plerumque videmus, cum iam destiterunt ea sensibus usurpare, relicuas tamen esse vias in mente patentis, qua possint eadem rerum simulacra venire; per multos itaque illa dies eadem obversantur ante oculos, etiam vigilantes ut videantur cernere saltantis et mollia membra moventis et citharae liquidum carmen chordasque loquentis auribus accipere et consessum cernere eundem scenaique simul varios splendere decores.

Munro: So great is the influence of zeal and inclination, so great is the influence of the things in which men have been habitually engaged, and not men only but all living creatures. Thus you will see stout horses, even when their bodies are lying down, yet in their sleep sweat and pant without ceasing and strain their powers to the utmost as if for the prize, or as if the barriers were thrown open. And often during soft repose the dogs of hunters do yet all at once throw about their legs and suddenly utter cries and repeatedly snuff the air with their nostrils, as though they had found and were on the tracks of wild beasts; and after they are awake often chase the shadowy idols of stags, as though they saw them in full flight, until they have shaken off their delusions and come to themselves again. And the fawning brood of dogs brought up tame in the house haste to shake their body and raise it up from the ground, as if they beheld unknown faces and features. And the fiercer the different breeds are, the greater rage they must display in sleep. But the various kinds of birds flee and suddenly in the night time trouble with their wings the groves of the gods, when in gentle sleep hawks and pursuing birds have appeared to show fight and offer battle.

Dunster: So strong impressions do use and custom make upon us; such effects do the common business of life produce in the minds of men, and beasts likewise. For you shall see the gallant Courser, when his limbs are at rest, to sweat in his sleep, to breath short, and, the barriers down, to lay himself out as it were on the full stretch for the prize. And hounds frequently in their soft sleep throw out their legs, and of a sudden yelp and snuff the air quick with their nose, as if they were full cry upon the foot of the deer; and when awake they still pursue the empty image of the game, as if they saw it fun swiftly before them, till undeceived they quit the chase, and the fancied image vanishes away. And the fawning breed of house-dogs, that live at home, often rouse and shake the drowsy fit from their eyes, and start up of a sudden with their bodies, as if they saw a stranger or a face they had not been used to. The sharper the seeds are of which the images are formed, they strike in the sleep with the greater violence; so, many birds will fly about, and hide themselves in the inmost recesses of sacred groves by night, if in their soft sleep they see the hawk pursuing them upon the wing, or pouncing or engaging with his prey.

Latin: Usque adeo magni refert studium atque voluntas, et quibus in rebus consuerint esse operati non homines solum sed vero animalia cuncta. quippe videbis equos fortis, cum membra iacebunt, in somnis sudare tamen spirareque semper et quasi de palma summas contendere viris aut quasi carceribus patefactis [edere voces> venantumque canes in molli saepe quiete iactant crura tamen subito vocisque repente mittunt et crebro redducunt naribus auras. ut vestigia si teneant inventa ferarum, expergefactique secuntur inania saepe cervorum simulacra, fugae quasi dedita cernant, donec discussis redeant erroribus ad se. at consueta domi catulorum blanda propago discutere et corpus de terra corripere instant, [iactant crura tamen subito vocisque repente mittunt et crebro redducunt naribus auras ut vestigia si teneant inventa ferarum expergefactique secuntur inania saepe] proinde quasi ignotas facies atque ora tuantur. et quo quaeque magis sunt aspera seminiorum, tam magis in somnis eadem saevire necessust. at variae fugiunt volucres pinnisque repente sollicitant divom nocturno tempore lucos, accipitres somno in leni si proelia pugnas edere sunt persectantes visaeque volantes.

Munro: Again the minds of men which pursue great aims under great emotions, often during sleep pursue and carry on the same in like manner; kings take by storm, are taken, join battle, raise aloud cry as if stabbed on the spot. Many struggle hard and utter groans in pain, and as if gnawed by the bite of panther or cruel lion fill all the place with loud cries. Many during sleep speak of important affairs and have often and often disclosed their own guilt. Many meet death; many as if tumbling down from high precipices to the ground with their whole body, are scared with terror and after sleep as if out of their judgment scarce come to themselves again, quite disordered by their body’s turmoil. Again a thirsty man sits down beside a river or a pleasant spring and gulps down well-nigh all the stream. Cleanly people often, when sound asleep, believing that they are lifting their dress beside a urinal or the public vessels, pour forth the filtered liquid of their whole body, and the Babylonian coverlets of surpassing brilliancy are drenched. Then too those into the boiling currents of whose age seed is for the first time passing, when the ripe fulness of days has produced it in their limbs, idols encounter from without from what body soever harbingers of a glorious face and a beautiful bloom, which stir and excite the frame.

Dunster: And then, what mighty deeds are men hurrying themselves about in their dreams? Then they show their valor, and do wonderful exploits; they engage with kings, and are taken captive, are in the confusion of battle; they cry out as if they were expiring on the spot. Some are the hottest in the fight, and groan with the anguish of their wounds, and fill the air with complaints, as if they were torn by the teeth of a panther or fierce lion. Some in their sleep talk of the mysteries of State, and frequently discover the treason of their own contriving. Some think they are dying away, and others, falling from the dreadful precipices with all their weight upon the earth, are terrified, and awake almost out of their senses, and can scarce recover themselves from the hurry and distraction of their spirits. Another, parched up with thirst, sits on the river’s bank, or by the side of a pleasant fountain, and almost drinks down his throat the whole stream. And children in their sleep often fancy that they are near some sink or public pissing place; they think they are taking up their clothes that they may make water freely, and so the Babylonian coverlid with its purple dye and the rich bedding are wet through. And further, those who are in the heat of youth, whose ripening age has well digested the semen through all the limbs, on such the images of every beauteous object strike deeply, and show the lovely face and blushing cheek which so provoke and stimulate the parts, swelling with seed in abundance, that they discharge, as if the deed were done, large floods of moisture and pollute the robe.

Latin: Porro hominum mentes, magnis quae motibus edunt magna, itidem saepe in somnis faciuntque geruntque, reges expugnant, capiuntur, proelia miscent, tollunt clamorem, quasi si iugulentur ibidem. multi depugnant gemitusque doloribus edunt et quasi pantherae morsu saevive leonis mandantur, magnis clamoribus omnia complent. multi de magnis per somnum rebus loquuntur indicioque sui facti persaepe fuere. multi mortem obeunt. multi, de montibus altis ut quasi praecipitent ad terram corpore toto, exterruntur et ex somno quasi mentibus capti vix ad se redeunt permoti corporis aestu. flumen item sitiens aut fontem propter amoenum adsidet et totum prope faucibus occupat amnem. puri saepe lacum propter si ac dolia curta somno devincti credunt se extollere vestem, totius umorem saccatum corporis fundunt, cum Babylonica magnifico splendore rigantur. tum quibus aetatis freta primitus insinuatur semen, ubi ipsa dies membris matura creavit, conveniunt simulacra foris e corpore quoque, nuntia praeclari voltus pulchrique coloris, qui ciet inritans loca turgida semine multo, ut quasi transactis saepe omnibus rebus profundant fluminis ingentis fluctus vestemque cruentent.

Munro: That seed we have spoken of before is stirred up in us, as soon as ripe age fortifies the frame. For as different causes set in motion and excite different things, so from man the sole influence of man draws forth human seed. As soon then as it has been forced out from and quits its proper seats throughout the limbs and frame, it withdraws itself from the whole body and meets together in appropriate places and rouses forthwith the appropriate parts of the body. The places are excited and swell with seed, !and the inclination arises to emit the seed towards that to which the fell desire all tends, and the body seeks that object from which the mind is wounded by love; for all as a rule fall towards their wound and the blood spurts out in that direction whence comes the stroke by which we are struck; and if he is at close quarters, the red stream covers the foe.

Dunster: For (as I said before) the seed begins to boil as soon as mature age has well-braced the limbs. Other thing are moved and provoked by other impressions, but nothing but the power of beauty can put the human semen into motion, which, as soon as it is ejected from its little cells, flows through the limbs and through every part of the body, and being received into the receptacle of the nerves proper for it, in an instant stimulates the genitals. These parts grow turgid with the semen, and thence proceeds the will to project it where the heat of lust strives to reach; for the mind drives furiously toward the lovely body from when it received the wound of love. Men generally fall upon their wound, and the blood gushes with violence toward the part from which we received the blow. If the murderer be near, the red liquor will spout all over him.

Latin: Sollicitatur id [in] nobis, quod diximus ante, semen, adulta aetas cum primum roborat artus. namque alias aliud res commovet atque lacessit; ex homine humanum semen ciet una hominis vis. quod simul atque suis eiectum sedibus exit, per membra atque artus decedit corpore toto, in loca conveniens nervorum certa cietque continuo partis genitalis corporis ipsas. inritata tument loca semine fitque voluntas eicere id quo se contendit dira lubido, [incitat inritans loca turgida semine multo] idque petit corpus, mens unde est saucia amore; namque omnes plerumque cadunt in vulnus et illam emicat in partem sanguis, unde icimur ictu, et si comminus est, hostem ruber occupat umor. sic igitur Veneris qui telis accipit ictus, sive puer membris muliebribus hunc iaculatur seu mulier toto iactans e corpore amorem, unde feritur, eo tendit gestitque coire t iacere umorem in corpus de corpore ductum; namque voluptatem praesagit muta cupido.

Munro: Thus then he who gets a hurt from the weapons of Venus, whatever be the object that hits him, inclines to the quarter whence he is wounded, and yearns to unite with it and join body with body; for a mute desire gives a presage of the pleasure. This pleasure is for us Venus; from that desire is the Latin name of love, from that desire has first trickled into the heart yon drop of Venus’ honeyed joy, succeeded soon by chilly care; for though that which you love is away, yet idols of it are at hand and its sweet name is present to the ears. But it is meet to fly idols and scare away all that feeds love and turn your mind on another object, distract your passion elsewhere and not keep it, with your thoughts once set on one object by love of it, and so lay up for yourself care and unfailing pain. For the sore gathers strength and becomes inveterate by feeding, and every day the madness grows in violence and the misery becomes aggravated, unless you erase the first wounds by new blows and first heal them when yet fresh, roaming abroad after Venus the pandemian, or transfer to something else the emotions of your mind.

Dunster: So he that is struck with the darts of Venus (whether some beauteous boy, with female charms, the arrow casts, or some more beauteous maid, that shoots out love from every pore) tends to the part that gave the stroke; he is in raptures to enjoy, to inject and to consummate, for the hot desire to the act foreshows the mighty pleasure that attends it. This is properly Venus to us, this is the Deity of Love. Hence the drops of sweet delight first strike upon the heart, and the burning fever of succeeding care follows it close, for if the object of your love be absent, her charming image is always before you, and her sweet name is ever thrilling in your ears. But take care that you fly those images, and avoid those incentives to love, and divert your mind some other way; choose to bestow your favors in common, don’t reserve your whole stock for one only, lest by that means you entail anxiety and certain sorrow upon yourself, for the ulcer spreads and grows stubborn by feeding it, the madness increases every day, and trouble becomes the heavier unless you cure old wounds by new, or like a Rover, remove your first smart by wandering over all the sex, or turn the passion of your mind into some other channel.

Latin: Haec Venus est nobis; hinc autemst nomen Amoris, hinc illaec primum Veneris dulcedinis in cor stillavit gutta et successit frigida cura; nam si abest quod ames, praesto simulacra tamen sunt illius et nomen dulce obversatur ad auris. sed fugitare decet simulacra et pabula amoris absterrere sibi atque alio convertere mentem et iacere umorem coniectum in corpora quaeque nec retinere semel conversum unius amore et servare sibi curam certumque dolorem; ulcus enim vivescit et inveterascit alendo inque dies gliscit furor atque aerumna gravescit, si non prima novis conturbes volnera plagis volgivagaque vagus Venere ante recentia cures aut alio possis animi traducere motus.

Munro: Nor is he who shuns love without the fruits of Venus, but rather enjoys those blessings which are without any pain: doubtless the pleasure from such things is more unalloyed for the healthy-minded than for the love-sick; for in the very moment of enjoying the burning desire of lovers wavers and wanders undecided, and they cannot tell what first to enjoy with eyes and hands. What they have sought, they tightly squeeze and cause pain of body and often imprint their teeth on the lips and clash mouth to mouth in kissing, because the pleasure is not pure and there are hidden stings which stimulate to hurt, even that whatever it is from which spring those germs of frenzy.

Dunster: Nor is he without the pleasures of Venus who disdains the fetters of love, but rather takes the sweet without the pain that follows it; for such a sober lover takes more certain and more unmixed delight, than those wretches, those furious votaries, whose mind in the very instant of enjoyment is tossed with a thousand doubts and fears. These know not what sweets they shall first rifle with their hands and eyes, what they fasten upon, they strain hard and give pain to the body; they often fix their teeth in the fair-one’s lips, and pin her down with kisses. And for this reason, because the joy is imperfect, and some stings remain which provoke them to hurt the thing, whatever it is, that first put them into a rage.

Latin: Nec Veneris fructu caret is qui vitat amorem, sed potius quae sunt sine poena commoda sumit; nam certe purast sanis magis inde voluptas quam miseris; etenim potiundi tempore in ipso fluctuat incertis erroribus ardor amantum nec constat quid primum oculis manibusque fruantur. quod petiere, premunt arte faciuntque dolorem corporis et dentes inlidunt saepe labellis osculaque adfigunt, quia non est pura voluptas et stimuli subsunt, qui instigant laedere id ipsum, quod cumque est, rabies unde illaec germina surgunt.

Munro: But Venus with light hand breaks the force of these pains during love, and the fond pleasure mingled therein reins in the bites. For in this there is hope, that from the same body whence springs their burning desire, their flame may likewise be quenched; though nature protests that the very opposite is the truth; and this is the one thing of all in which, when we have most of it, then all the more the breast burns with fell desire. Meat and drink are taken into the body; and as they can fill up certain fixed parts, in this way the craving for drink and bread is easily satisfied; but from the face and beautiful bloom of man nothing is given into the body to enjoy save flimsy idols; a sorry hope which is often snatched off by the wind. As when in sleep a thirsty man seeks to drink and water is not given to quench the burning in his frame, but he seeks the idols of waters and toils in vain and thirsts as he drinks in the midst of the torrent stream, thus in love Venus mocks lovers with idols, nor can bodies satisfy them by all their gazing upon them nor can they with their hands rub aught off the soft limbs, wandering undecided over the whole body. At last when they have united and enjoy the flower of age, when the body now has a presage of delights and Venus is in the mood to sow the fields of woman, they greedily clasp each other’s body and suck each other’s lips and breathe in, pressing meanwhile teeth on each other’s mouth; all in vain, since they can rub nothing off nor enter and pass each with his whole body into the other’s body; for so sometimes they seem to will and strive to do: so greedily are they held in the chains of Venus, while their limbs melt overpowered by the might of the pleasure. At length when the gathered desire has gone forth, there ensues for a brief while a short pause in the burning passion; and then returns the same frenzy, then comes back the old madness, when they are at a loss to know what they really desire to get, and cannot find what device is to conquer that mischief; in such utter uncertainty they pine away by a hidden wound.

Dunster: But Venus in the encounter of love gently sooths the pain, and the sweet pleasure intermixed restrains the lover’s teeth from biting too hard. The lover hopes, perhaps, that his flame may be extinguished by the same object that first blew the fire, but experience shows the contrary of this, for this is the only thing which, the more we enjoy of it, our soul still burns with the eager desire of more. Meat and drink are taken down into the body, and because they fill up certain empty spaces, therefore the appetite of eating and drinking is easily satisfied; but from a lovely face and a fine complexion, the body can enjoy nothing but empty images, and a fleeting hope scattered by every wind. As a thirsty man desires to drink in his sleep, and has no moisture to allay the heat within, but vainly catches at the images of rivers, and labours to no purpose, and is parched up while he fancies himself quaffing a full stream, so in the business of love Venus deludes the lover with empty images, nor can he quench his desire by gazing upon the charming object, nor bring away anything from the tender limbs with his hands, as he wanders with wild excess over all the body of his mistress. Besides, when they sport in the flower of their age with their limbs mingled in the embrace, when their bodies feel the coming joy, and Venus is fully employed to sow the female soil, though they eagerly twine with amorous folds, and dart their humid tongues, and bite, and ardently receive each other’s breath, ‘tis all to no purpose, for they can carry nothing away from the parts they strain, nor can bodies pierce or be in bodies lost. For this they sometimes wish, for this they contend when they engage, so eagerly are they entangled in the nets of love, that their very limbs are dissolved in the excess of pleasure. Then, when the collected lust has burst from the nerves, a cessation of the violent ardor ensues for a while, but the same rage soon returns, the same fury is renewed, and again they strive to touch the point, the end of their desires: They can find no device to subdue the pain they feel, and so they pine and languish by a secret wound.

Latin: Sed leviter poenas frangit Venus inter amorem blandaque refrenat morsus admixta voluptas. namque in eo spes est, unde est ardoris origo, restingui quoque posse ab eodem corpore flammam. quod fieri contra totum natura repugnat; unaque res haec est, cuius quam plurima habemus, tam magis ardescit dira cuppedine pectus. nam cibus atque umor membris adsumitur intus; quae quoniam certas possunt obsidere partis, hoc facile expletur laticum frugumque cupido. ex hominis vero facie pulchroque colore nil datur in corpus praeter simulacra fruendum tenvia; quae vento spes raptast saepe misella. ut bibere in somnis sitiens quom quaerit et umor non datur, ardorem qui membris stinguere possit, sed laticum simulacra petit frustraque laborat in medioque sitit torrenti flumine potans, sic in amore Venus simulacris ludit amantis, nec satiare queunt spectando corpora coram nec manibus quicquam teneris abradere membris possunt errantes incerti corpore toto. denique cum membris conlatis flore fruuntur aetatis, iam cum praesagit gaudia corpus atque in eost Venus ut muliebria conserat arva, adfigunt avide corpus iunguntque salivas oris et inspirant pressantes dentibus ora, ne quiquam, quoniam nihil inde abradere possunt nec penetrare et abire in corpus corpore toto; nam facere inter dum velle et certare videntur. usque adeo cupide in Veneris compagibus haerent, membra voluptatis dum vi labefacta liquescunt. tandem ubi se erupit nervis coniecta cupido, parva fit ardoris violenti pausa parumper. inde redit rabies eadem et furor ille revisit, cum sibi quod cupiant ipsi contingere quaerunt, nec reperire malum id possunt quae machina vincat. usque adeo incerti tabescunt volnere caeco.

Munro: Then too they waste their strength and ruin themselves by the labor, then too their life is passed at the beck of another. Meanwhile their estate runs away and is turned into Babylonian coverlets; duties are neglected and their good name staggers and sickens. On her feet laugh elastic and beautiful Sicyonian shoes, yes, and large emeralds with green light are set in gold and the sea-colored dress is worn constantly and much used drinks in the sweat. The noble earnings of their fathers are turned into hair-bands, head-dresses; sometimes are changed into a sweeping robe and Alidensian and Cean dresses. Feasts set out with rich coverlets and viands, games, numerous cups, perfumes crowns and garlands are prepared; all in vain, since out of the very well-spring of delights rises up something of bitter, to pain amid the very flowers; either when the conscience-stricken mind haply gnaws itself with remorse to think that it is passing a life of sloth and ruining itself in brothels, or because she has launched forth some word and left its meaning in doubt and it cleaves to the love-sick heart and bums like living fire, or because it fancies she casts her eyes too freely about or looks on another, and it sees in her face traces of a smile.

Dunster: And then, they waste their strength, and perish by the labor they go through. And more, they lie under the power of another’s will, while their fortune decays and their debts increase, their duty is neglected and their tottering reputation sickens. Rich pearls and fine shoes of Sicyon shine upon the feet of their mistress; the large emeralds, with their green luster, are set in gold; and the blue vest is daily stained, and continually in use drinks up the sweat of lust. The family estate, acquired with honor, is changed into coronets of ribbons, and headdresses sparkling with jewels, and is sometimes turned into costly gowns, or garments of Melita, or Cean robes. Besides, they add to these the luxury of feasts and stately couches, plays, frequent carousals, crowns and garlands. But in vain! For some bitter bubbles up from the very fountain of his delight, and poisons all his sweets; either his own guilty mind stings him for leading such a life of sloth, and murdering so large a part of his time, or his mistress has dropped some doubtful word, which kinds in his fond heart like fire; or he thinks she has thrown her eyes too freely abroad, and glanced upon another, and he discovers the remains of a smiling pleasure upon her face.

Latin: Adde quod absumunt viris pereuntque labore, adde quod alterius sub nutu degitur aetas, languent officia atque aegrotat fama vacillans. labitur interea res et Babylonia fiunt unguenta et pulchra in pedibus Sicyonia rident, scilicet et grandes viridi cum luce zmaragdi auro includuntur teriturque thalassina vestis adsidue et Veneris sudorem exercita potat. et bene parta patrum fiunt anademata, mitrae, inter dum in pallam atque Alidensia Ciaque vertunt. eximia veste et victu convivia, ludi, pocula crebra, unguenta, coronae, serta parantur, ne quiquam, quoniam medio de fonte leporum surgit amari aliquid, quod in ipsis floribus angat, aut cum conscius ipse animus se forte remordet desidiose agere aetatem lustrisque perire, aut quod in ambiguo verbum iaculata reliquit, quod cupido adfixum cordi vivescit ut ignis, aut nimium iactare oculos aliumve tueri quod putat in voltuque videt vestigia risus.

Munro: And these evils are found in love that is lasting and highly prosperous; but in crossed and hopeless love are ills such as you may seize with closed eyes, past numbering; so that it is better to watch before-hand in the manner I have prescribed, and be on your guard not to be drawn in. For to avoid falling into the toils of love is not so hard as, after you are caught, to get out of the nets you are in and to break through the strong meshes of Venus. And yet even when you are entangled and held fast you may escape the mischief, unless you stand in your own way and begin by overlooking all the defects of her mind or those of her body, whoever it is whom you court and woo. For this men usually do, blinded by passion, and attribute to the beloved those advantages which are not really theirs. We therefore see women in ways manifold deformed and ugly to be objects of endearment and held in the highest admiration. And one lover jeers at others and advises them to propitiate Venus, since they are troubled by a disgraceful passion, and often, poor wretch, gives no thought to his own ills greatest of all. The black is a brune, the filthy and rank has not the love of order; the cat-eyed is a miniature Pallas, the stringy and wizened a gazelle; the dumpy and dwarfish is one of the graces, from top to toe all grace; the big and overgrown is awe-inspiring and full of dignity. She is tongue-tied, cannot speak, then she has a lisp; the dumb is bashful; then the fire-spit, the teasing, the gossiping turns to a shining lamp. One becomes a slim darling then when she cannot live from want of flesh; and she is only spare, who is half-dead with cough. Then the fat and big-breasted is a Ceres’ self big-breasted from Iacchus; the pug-nosed is a she Silenus and a satyress; the thick-lipped a very kiss. It were tedious to attempt to report other things of the kind.

Dunster: These are the misfortunes that attend an amour ever so fortunate and constant; but the miseries of a wretched and disastrous love are innumerable, and obvious to everyone with his eyes open. You had better therefore be upon your guard beforehand, and observe the rules I have laid down to prevent your being caught; for ‘tis not so difficult to avoid being drawn into the snares of love as to disengage yourself from the net when you are taken, and to break through the strong knots which Venus ties close upon all her votaries. And though you are entangled and within the net, you may still avoid much of the evil, unless you willfully set yourself against the remedy. First then, you are to take no notice of any imperfections, either of mind or body, you find in the mistress you admire and fondly love. All lovers, blinded by their passion, observe this, and attribute beauties to the fair to which they have no real pretence; and therefore the ugly and deformed we see have their several charms, and secure a sovereign power over their admirers. The lover that has such a forbidding Dowdy for a mistress is laughed at by his companions, who advise him to appease Venus and render her propitious, while they think nothing of their greater misfortunes in placing their esteem upon others less lovely and less beautiful. The black seems brown; the nasty and rank is negligent, the owl-eyed is a Pallas, the sinewy, with her dry skin, is a little Doe, the dwarf, of the Pygmy Breed, is one of the Graces, wit and spirit all over; the large and gigantic is surprising and full of majesty. If she stammers and cannot speak, then she lisps; she is modest if she is dumb; but the Turbulent, the violent and the talkative is all Fire. If she is worn away with a consumption, she is my Slender Love, you may span her in the waist if she is dying with a cough. The two-handed Virago, with her full Duggs, is Ceres herself, a bedfellow for Bacchus; the flat-nosed is my Silene, a little Satyr; the pouting lip is a very Kiss. It would be endless to say all that might be offered upon this subject.

Latin: Atque in amore mala haec proprio summeque secundo inveniuntur; in adverso vero atque inopi sunt, prendere quae possis oculorum lumine operto. innumerabilia; ut melius vigilare sit ante, qua docui ratione, cavereque, ne inliciaris. nam vitare, plagas in amoris ne iaciamur, non ita difficile est quam captum retibus ipsis exire et validos Veneris perrumpere nodos. et tamen implicitus quoque possis inque peditus effugere infestum, nisi tute tibi obvius obstes et praetermittas animi vitia omnia primum aut quae corporis sunt eius, quam praepetis ac vis. nam faciunt homines plerumque cupidine caeci et tribuunt ea quae non sunt his commoda vere. multimodis igitur pravas turpisque videmus esse in deliciis summoque in honore vigere. atque alios alii inrident Veneremque suadent ut placent, quoniam foedo adflictentur amore, nec sua respiciunt miseri mala maxima saepe. nigra melichrus est, inmunda et fetida acosmos, caesia Palladium, nervosa et lignea dorcas, parvula, pumilio, chariton mia, tota merum sal, magna atque inmanis cataplexis plenaque honoris. balba loqui non quit, traulizi, muta pudens est; at flagrans, odiosa, loquacula Lampadium fit. ischnon eromenion tum fit, cum vivere non quit prae macie; rhadine verost iam mortua tussi. at nimia et mammosa Ceres est ipsa ab Iaccho, simula Silena ac Saturast, labeosa philema. cetera de genere hoc longum est si dicere coner.

Munro: Let her however be of ever so great dignity of appearance; such that the power of Venus goes forth from all her limbs; yet there are others too; yet have we lived without her before; yet does she do, and we know that she does, in all things the same as the ugly woman; and fumigates herself, poor wretch, with nauseous perfumes, her very maids running from her and giggling behind her back. But the lover, when shut out, often in tears covers the threshold with flowers and wreaths, and anoints the haughty doorposts with oil of marjoram; and imprints kisses, poor wretch, on the doors. When however he has been admitted, if on his approach but one single breath should come in his way, he would seek specious reasons for departing, and the long-conned deep drawn complaint would fall to the ground; and then he would blame his folly on seeing that he had attributed to her more than it is right to concede to a mortal. Nor is this unknown to our Venuses; wherefore all the more they themselves hide with the utmost pains all that goes on behind the scenes of life from those whom they wish to retain in the chains of love; but in vain, since you may yet draw forth from her mind into the light all these things and search into all her smiles; and if she is of a fair mind and not troublesome, overlook them in your turn and make allowance for human failings.

Dunster: But allow your mistress all the advantages of beauty in her face, that charms of love arise from every limb, yet there are others as lovely as she, and time was when you lived without her, and we know she plays the same game that homelier women can do as well. And then she perfumes, rank as she is with filthy smells, that her maids cannot come near her, but make a jest of her when they are not seen. But when the lover is shut out, and all in tears crowns the gates with flowers and garlands, and pours ointments upon the stately pillars, and the wretch warms the very doors with his kisses; yet when he is admitted, and one blast from her armpits strikes full upon him as he enters, he presently seeks for a plausible reason to be gone, and all his long-labored speeches of complaint are forgotten, and he condemns himself of folly for raising such ideas of her beauty, which no mortal could lay claim to. This secret is well known to women of the town, and they act cunningly behind the scenes as it were, and conceal their failings from those whose love they would secure fixed and lasting to themselves. But all to no purpose, for you may easily imagine how things are, and discover all, and prevent their utmost endeavors to deceive you. And if your mistress be of an open temper, and not sullen and reserved, she will not so much as hide her defects, but hope you will allow for imperfections that are common to the whole sex.

Latin: Sed tamen esto iam quantovis oris honore, cui Veneris membris vis omnibus exoriatur; nempe aliae quoque sunt; nempe hac sine viximus ante; nempe eadem facit et scimus facere omnia turpi et miseram taetris se suffit odoribus ipsa, quam famulae longe fugitant furtimque cachinnant. at lacrimans exclusus amator limina saepe floribus et sertis operit postisque superbos unguit amaracino et foribus miser oscula figit; quem si iam ammissum venientem offenderit aura una modo, causas abeundi quaerat honestas et meditata diu cadat alte sumpta querella stultitiaque ibi se damnet, tribuisse quod illi plus videat quam mortali concedere par est. nec Veneres nostras hoc fallit; quo magis ipsae omnia summo opere hos vitae poscaenia celant, quos retinere volunt adstrictosque esse in amore, ne quiquam, quoniam tu animo tamen omnia possis protrahere in lucem atque omnis inquirere risus et, si bello animost et non odiosa, vicissim praetermittere [et] humanis concedere rebus.

Munro: Nor does the woman sigh always with feigned passion, when she locks in her embrace and joins with her body the man’s body and holds it, sucking his lips into her lips and drinking in his kisses. Often she does it from the heart, and seeking mutual joys courts him to run the complete race of love. And in no other way could birds, cattle, wild beasts, sheep and mares submit to bear the males, except because the very exuberance of nature in the females is in heat and burns and joyously draws in the Venus of the covering males. See you not too how those whom mutual pleasure has chained are often tortured in their common chains? How often in the highways do dogs, desiring to separate, eagerly pull different ways with all their might, while all the time they are held fast in the strong fetters of Venus! This they would never do, unless they experienced mutual joys strong enough to force them into the snare and hold them in its meshes. Wherefore again and again I repeat there is a common pleasure.

Dunster: Nor does the woman always breathe with feigned desire when joined in strict embrace with him she loves, when she holds him close, and on his pressed lips imprints her balmy kisses; for she often does it heartily, and strives to share the common joy, and run the heats with vigor to the goal. Nor for any other reason would birds and herds and wild beasts and cattle and mares bear the weight of the male if they did not burn and rage with equal heat, and so receive with joy the lusty leap. Don’t you observe how those whom mutual pleasure has bound fast are tortured as it were in common bonds? How dogs in the street are striving to untie the knot and pull with all their might a different way, yet they stick fast in the strong ties of love? This they would never do if not engaged in mutual joys, which cheat them with delight and hold them fast. The pleasure then is common to them both.

Latin: Nec mulier semper ficto suspirat amore, quae conplexa viri corpus cum corpore iungit et tenet adsuctis umectans oscula labris; nam facit ex animo saepe et communia quaerens gaudia sollicitat spatium decurrere amoris. nec ratione alia volucres armenta feraeque et pecudes et equae maribus subsidere possent, si non, ipsa quod illarum subat, ardet abundans natura et Venerem salientum laeta retractat. nonne vides etiam quos mutua saepe voluptas vinxit, ut in vinclis communibus excrucientur, in triviis cum saepe canes discedere aventis divorsi cupide summis ex viribus tendunt, quom interea validis Veneris compagibus haerent? quod facerent numquam, nisi mutua gaudia nossent, quae iacere in fraudem possent vinctosque tenere. quare etiam atque etiam, ut dico, est communis voluptas.

Munro: And when haply in mixing her seed with the man’s, the woman by sudden force has overpowered and seized for herself his force, then children are formed from the mothers’ seed like to the mothers, as from the fathers’ seed like to the fathers. But those whom you see with a share of both forms, blending equally the features of the parents, grow from the union of the father’s body and the mother’s blood, when the mutual ardor of desire working in concert has brought and clashed together the seeds roused throughout the frame by the goads of Venus; and neither of the two has gotten the mastery nor has been mastered.

Dunster: If, in the mixing of the seed, the female draws in and snatches with sudden force the male seed, the child, the female seed is prevailing, is like the mother, as he is like the father if his prevails. But those who, you observe, express jointly the resemblance, and mingle the features of both parents, are formed equally from the juices of both; for then the mutual ardor of the combatants has justly tempered the conflicting seed, which, raised by the stings of Venus, is sent in due proportion through all the limbs. The success of the battle is equal, neither is victor nor vanquished.

Latin: Et commiscendo quom semine forte virilem femina vim vicit subita vi corripuitque, tum similes matrum materno semine fiunt, ut patribus patrio. sed quos utriusque figurae esse vides, iuxtim miscentes vulta parentum, corpore de patrio et materno sanguine crescunt, semina cum Veneris stimulis excita per artus obvia conflixit conspirans mutuus ardor, et neque utrum superavit eorum nec superatumst.

Munro: Sometimes too the children may spring up like their grandfathers and often resemble the forms of their grandfathers’ fathers, because the parents often keep concealed in their bodies many first-beginnings mixed in many ways, which first proceeding from the original stock one father hands down to the next father; and then from these Venus produces forms after a manifold chance and repeats not only the features, but the voices and hair of their forefathers.

Dunster: It happens sometimes that children are like their grandfathers, and resemble the persons of their remote ancestors, because the parents have frequently many seeds concealed and variously mingled in their bodies, which preserve the features of the family, and are delivered down from one to another. These Venus forms into different figures, as the qualities of the seeds require, and represents the complexion, the voice and hair of the progenitors; for these no less arise from proper seeds than the face, the body, or any parts of it.

Latin: Fit quoque ut inter dum similes existere avorum possint et referant proavorum saepe figuras, propterea quia multa modis primordia multis mixta suo celant in corpore saepe parentis, quae patribus patres tradunt a stirpe profecta. inde Venus varia producit sorte figuras, maiorumque refert voltus vocesque comasque; quandoquidem nihilo magis haec [de] semine certo fiunt quam facies et corpora membraque nobis.

Munro: And the female sex equally springs from the father’s seed and males go forth equally formed from the mother’s body; since these distinctions no more proceed from the fixed seed of one or other parent than our faces and bodies and limbs: the birth is always formed out of the two seeds; and whichever parent that which is produced more resembles of that parent it has more than an equal share; as you may equally observe, whether it is a male child or a female birth.

Dunster: And a female child proceeds partly from the father’s seed, and a male from the mother’s, for the issue always consists of the seed of both; but the greater likeness it bears to the one than to the other, it partakes of more than a just proportion of the seed of that sex, which you easily apprehend, whether the child be male or female.

Latin: Et muliebre oritur patrio de semine saeclum maternoque mares existunt corpore creti; semper enim partus duplici de semine constat, atque utri similest magis id quod cumque creatur, eius habet plus parte aequa; quod cernere possis, sive virum suboles sivest muliebris origo.

Munro: Nor do the divine powers debar anybody from the power of begetting, forbidding him ever to receive the name of father from sweet children and forcing him to pass his life in a barren wedlock; as men commonly fancy when in sorrow they drench the altars with much blood and pile the raised altars with offerings, to make their wives pregnant with abundant seed. In vain they weary the divinity of the gods and the sacred lots. They are barren sometimes from the too great thickness of the seed, sometimes from its undue fluidity and thinness: because the thin is unable to get a firm hold on the right spots, it at once passes away and is repelled and withdrawn abortively: since by others again a too thick seed is discharged in a state more solid than is suitable, it either does not fly forth with so prolonged a stroke or cannot equally pass into the proper spots or when it has passed in with difficulty mixes with the woman’s seed. For well-assorted matches are found to be of great importance; and some males impregnate some females more readily than others, and other females conceive and become pregnant more readily from other males. And many women have hitherto been barren during several marriages and have yet in the end found mates from whom they could conceive children and be enriched with a sweet offspring. And often even for those to whom hitherto wives however fruitful had been unable in their house to bear, has been found a compatible nature, enabling them to fortify their age with sons. Of such great importance is it in order that seeds may agree and blend with seeds in a way to promote birth whether the thick comes into contact with the fluid and the fluid with the thick. And on this point it matters much on what diet life is supported; for by some foods seed is thickened in the limbs, and by others again is thinned and wasted.

Dunster: Nor do divinities above ever destroy the prolific virtue of the seed, or prevent a man’s being called father by a number of sweet children, or curse him all his life with unfruitful love, as some vainly think, and therefore with much concern stain the altars with the blood of many victims, and make them smoke with clouds of incense, to implore a blessing upon the showery seed and promote conception; but to no purpose they tire out the gods and fatigue the oracles, for they are frequently unfruitful because the seed is too thick or too thin. The thin seed will not stay in the parts where it was injected, but soon dissolves and flows back; and the thick has no effect, because it is sent out heavy and condensed, or it does not carry home to the mark, or it cannot rightly penetrate the passages, or if it does, it is not at all disposed to mix kindly with the female juice. For the harmony of love between the sexes is widely different; men are more prolific with some women, and women conceive more readily, and swell with their burden after the embrace of some men than with others. Many women have been barren in a first and second marriage, and been fruitful at last, have borne lusty boys and blessed the family with a sweet offspring; and men, after marrying several times without issue, have at length found out a wife of a constitution agreeable to their own, and supported their old age with many children. Of so great concern it is that the seed of both should kindly mix and mutually glow with genial heat, that the thick and the thin should incorporate together, and that the woman, in the art of love, should engage with a man whose nature be suitable to her own. And the food we live upon is of no small importance, for the seed increases through the limbs by some meats, and it becomes watery and feeble by others.

Latin: Nec divina satum genitalem numina cuiquam absterrent, pater a gnatis ne dulcibus umquam appelletur et ut sterili Venere exigat aevom; quod plerumque putant et multo sanguine maesti conspergunt aras adolentque altaria donis, ut gravidas reddant uxores semine largo; ne quiquam divom numen sortisque fatigant; nam steriles nimium crasso sunt semine partim, et liquido praeter iustum tenuique vicissim. tenve locis quia non potis est adfigere adhaesum, liquitur extemplo et revocatum cedit abortu. crassius hinc porro quoniam concretius aequo mittitur, aut non tam prolixo provolat ictu aut penetrare locos aeque nequit aut penetratum aegre admiscetur muliebri semine semen. nam multum harmoniae Veneris differre videntur. atque alias alii complent magis ex aliisque succipiunt aliae pondus magis inque gravescunt. et multae steriles Hymenaeis ante fuerunt pluribus et nactae post sunt tamen unde puellos suscipere et partu possent ditescere dulci. et quibus ante domi fecundae saepe nequissent uxoris parere, inventast illis quoque compar natura, ut possent gnatis munire senectam. usque adeo magni refert, ut semina possint seminibus commisceri genitaliter apta crassaque conveniant liquidis et liquida crassis. atque in eo refert quo victu vita colatur; namque aliis rebus concrescunt semina membris atque aliis extenvantur tabentque vicissim.

Munro: And in what modes the intercourse goes on, is likewise of very great moment; for women are commonly thought to conceive more readily after the manner of wild beasts and quadrupeds, because the seeds in this way can find the proper spots in consequence of the position of the body. Nor have wives the least use for effeminate motions: a woman hinders and stands in the way of her own conceiving, when thus she acts; for she drives the furrow out of the direct course and path of the share and turns away from the proper spots the stroke of the seed. And thus for their own ends harlots are wont to move, in order not to conceive and lie in child-bed frequently, and at the same time to render Venus more attractive to men. This our wives have surely no need of.

Dunster: [1743 TRANSLATOR’S NOTE: “I can translate no further. Dryden, in his Miscelllanies, goes on in full vigor, and keeps up to the original.”] If like importance is the posture, too, in which the genial feat of love we do. For, as the females of the four-foot kind receive the leapings of their males behind, so the good wives, with loins uplifted high, and leaning on their hands, the fruitful stroke may try. For in that posture they will best conceive, not when supinely laid they frisk and heave, for active motions only break the flow, and more of strumpet than of wives they show; when answering stroke with stroke, the mingled liquors flow. Endearment eager, and too brisk a bound, throw off the plow-share from the furrowed ground. But common harlots in conjunction heave, because tis less their business to conceive than to delight and to provoke the deed, a trick which honest wives but little need.

Latin: Et quibus ipsa modis tractetur blanda voluptas. id quoque permagni refert; nam more ferarum quadrupedumque magis ritu plerumque putantur concipere uxores, quia sic loca sumere possunt pectoribus positis sublatis semina lumbis. nec molles opus sunt motus uxoribus hilum. nam mulier prohibet se concipere atque repugnat, clunibus ipsa viri Venerem si laeta retractat atque exossato ciet omni pectore fluctus; eicit enim sulcum recta regione viaque vomeris atque locis avertit seminis ictum. idque sua causa consuerunt scorta moveri, ne complerentur crebro gravidaeque iacerent, et simul ipsa viris Venus ut concinnior esset; coniugibus quod nil nostris opus esse videtur.

Munro: Sometimes too by no divine grace and arrows of Venus a sorry woman of inferior beauty comes to be loved; for the wife sometimes by her own acts and accommodating manners and by elegant neatness of person readily habituates you to pass your life with her. Moreover custom renders love attractive; for that which is struck by oft-repeated blows however lightly, yet after long course of time is overpowered and gives way. See you not too that drops of water falling on stones after long course of time scoop a hole through these stones?

Dunster: Nor is it from the gods, or the darts of Venus, that a woman of ordinary beauty is sometimes beloved. She often secures the affection by her discreet conduct, by the sweetness of her deportment, and an exactness in the decency of her person, so that a man by use, may spend his life happily with her. To sum it all up: it is custom that reconciles the delights of love, for beat upon anything with constant blows, though ever so lightly, it is overcome at last, and crumbles to pieces. Have not you observed how drops of water falling upon a hard stone, by length of time, wear it away?

Latin: Nec divinitus inter dum Venerisque sagittis deteriore fit ut forma muliercula ametur; nam facit ipsa suis inter dum femina factis morigerisque modis et munde corpore culto, ut facile insuescat secum [te] degere vitam. quod super est, consuetudo concinnat amorem; nam leviter quamvis quod crebro tunditur ictu, vincitur in longo spatio tamen atque labascit. nonne vides etiam guttas in saxa cadentis umoris longo in spatio pertundere saxa?